Chapter 7: Memory

BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE

Forming Memories
Four Steps in Forming Memories
Encoding: Taking In Information
Consolidation: Solidifying Information
Storage: Keeping Information
Retrieval: Getting and Using Information
Aids to Memory Formation
Attention
Depth of Processing
Sleep
Emotion
Impediments to Memory Formation
Distraction (Multitasking)
Emotion
Types of Memory
Three Major Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term and Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Memory and the Brain
Neuroplasticity and Memory
Brain Regions Most Involved in Memory
Sensory Memory and the Brain
Short-Term and Working Memory and the Brain
Long-Term Memory and the Brain
Psychology in the Real World: Manipulating Memory with Drugs and Drinks
Challenging Assumptions in Brain Stimulation and Memory
Malleability of Memory
Reconsolidation
Selective and Divided Attention
Eyewitness Testimony
False Memories
Recovered Memories
Suggestibility and Misinformation

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Forgetting and Memory Loss
Forms of Forgetting
Memory Loss Caused by Brain Injury and Disease
Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Memory: How to Study
Chapter Review

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE

FORMING MEMORIES
 Memory, in its most general form, is our ability to take in, solidify, store, and then
use information.
 Memory is not one process nor is it only one kind.
 Four Steps in Forming Memories
o Encoding: Taking in Information
The first step in forming memories involves taking in or encoding our
sensory experiences.
 Encoding is the means by which we attend to, take in, and process new
information.
 Automatic processing happens with little effort or conscious
attention to the task.
o They are often not processed as deeply and are less likely
to be recalled later.
 Effortful processing occurs when we carefully attend to and put
conscious effort into remembering information.
o Effortful processing is the basis of semantic memory, and it
usually involves rehearsal of the information, so that it goes
from short-term to long-term memory.
 A mnemonic device is a scheme that helps people remember
information. Rhyming, chunking, and rehearsal are types of
mnemonic devices.
o Acronyms are a type of mnemonic device. We usually
create acronyms by combining the first letters of each word
or object we need to remember.
o Consolidation: Solidifying Information
 The second stage of memory formation is consolidation, the process of
establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory (Kandel, 2006;
McGaugh, 2000; Moscovitch, 2010).
 A consolidated memory is resistant to distraction, interference, and decay
(Dubai, 2004).
 Sleep plays an important role in memory consolidation.
o Storage: Keeping Information
 Storage, the retention of memory over time, is the third stage of memory
formation. We organize and store memories in at least three ways: in
hierarchies, schemas, and networks.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
  Hierarchies organize related information from specific to general.
We use hierarchies to organize related information from the most
specific feature they have in common to the most general. An
example is the hierarchy human (specific), hominid (less specific),
primate, mammal, and animal (general). Each step moves to a
more general category in a hierarchy.

 Schemas are organized patterns of thoughts, behavior, or some

aspect of the world.

 Networks are based on associations of relatedness.

o An associative network is a chain of associations between

related concepts. Each concept or association in a network
is referred to as a node. The links between the nodes are
associations. When people think of a concept, and its node
is activated, they are primed and more likely to make an
association to a nearby concept or node.

o Related are neural networks or computer models that

imitate the way neurons talk to each other.

o Well-known models of memory storage that integrate

associative and neural networks are parallel distributed
processing. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models
propose that associations involve the simultaneous activity
of many nodes (McClelland, 1988; McClelland & Rogers,
2003; McClelland & Rumelhart, 1985).

o Retrieval: Getting and Using Information

 Retrieval is the recovery and use of information stored in memory.
 Aids to Memory Formation
o Attention
 Not paying attention to information when first exposed to it almost
guarantees that it will not get encoded and processed well and therefore
stands almost no chance of being remembered well.
o Depth of Processing
 Processing information deeply rather than superficially is one of the best
ways to recall it.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
  The idea behind levels of processing is that, the more deeply people
encode information, the better they will recall it.
 Based on word-recall studies, researchers have identified three

 levels of processing: structural, phonemic, and semantic (Craik & Tulving,

1975; Hyde & Jenkins, 1973; see Figure 2).
 Structural processing is the shallowest level.

o When studying structural processing, researchers might

have directed participants to focus on the structure of a
word by asking questions such as “Is the word in capital
letters?”
 To study phonemic processing, or midlevel processing, they asked
questions to focus participants’ attention on the sound of the word,
such as “Does the word rhyme with ?”
 Semantic processing is the deepest level of processing. Participants
were asked to think about the meaning of the words and answer
questions such as “ Would the word fit the sentence: ‘He met
a in the street?’”
o Sleep

a major benefit of getting a good night’s sleep is not just to rest your body
but to aid in learning and memory and cognitive functioning in general
(Mazza et al., 2016; Wixted & Cai, 2014).
CONNECTION: One of the primary functions of sleep is to consolidate memories and facilitate
new neural growth. See “Sleeping,” in the chapter “Consciousness.” (p. 228)
o Emotion
 Emotional memories are easier to recall than are factual ones.
 Important structures for memory—the amygdala and the hippocampus—
are linked to key structures for emotion.
 These two structures lie next to each other in the brain and are
connected by many nerve fibers. Indeed, these two structures
become activated simultaneously during emotional experiences
(Strange & Dolan, 2006).
 A flashbulb memory is a special kind of emotional memory occurs when a
detailed snapshot memory forms for what we were doing when we first
heard of a major, often public, and emotionally charged event.
 Flashbulb memories are remark- able for two reasons: They are
very long-lasting (often lasting a lifetime) and people remain very
confident in the accuracy of what they were doing when they

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 learned of the event, even though their accuracy/consistency is not
very high (Conway, Skitka, Hemmerich, & Kershaw, 2009; Hirst
et al., 2015; Lanciano, Curci, & Semin, 2010).
 Impediments to Memory Formation
o Distraction (Multitasking)
 We are much less likely to remember things when we try to multitask.
 Divided attention and multitasking are enemies of memory because they
interfere with the first necessary steps of memory formation (Clapp et al.,
2011; Dindar & Akbulut, 2016; van der Schuur, Baumgartner, Sumter, &
Valkenburg, 2015).
 A consistent finding is that using a laptop to take notes in lecture
interferes with learning and grades (Bellur, Nowak, & Hull, 2015;
Levine, Waite, & Bowman, 2012; Sana, Weston, & Cepeda, 2013;
van der Schuur et al., 2015). It is not the laptop in itself, but rather
the distractions of the web, email, YouTube, Facebook, etc., that
lead to poor encoding of material and inferior recall and learning.
 It is nearly impossible to take in and later recall information when
being distracted by other forms of information.
o Emotion
 Emotion can help us remember events but the recall will not always be
accurate.
 The details of emotional memories tend to be less accurate than those of
non-emotional memories (Phelps & Sharot, 2008).
 When people look back over their lives, they recall the pleasant times
rather than the negative ones. There is a positive bias in autobiographical
memory recall. The “good ol’ days” are good partly because we remember
the good more readily than we remember the bad (Walker, Skowronski, &
Thompson, 2003).

CONNECTION: Besides the ability to consciously recall a memory, what other forms of
consciousness affect our behavior without our knowing it? See “Two Dimensions of
Consciousness: Wakefulness and Awareness,” in the chapter “Consciousness.” (p. 216)

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 TYPES OF MEMORY

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
  In the case of H.M. a 7-year-old boy was injured and the result was a brain injury that
resulted in severe epileptic seizures. In an effort to stop the seizures, doctors removed the

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 hippocampus bilaterally and effectively stopped the seizures. Unfortunately, it resulted in
an inability to form new memories. Most memories formed prior to the surgery, however,
remained intact.
 Three Major Types of Memory
o The three-stage model of memory classifies three types of memories based on
how long the memories last: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971).
 Sensory memory holds information in its original sensory form for a very
brief period of time, usually about half a second or less.
 Short-term memory temporarily stores a limited amount of informa- tion
before it is either transferred to long-term storage or forgotten.
Information stays in short-term memory for 2 to 30 seconds—about long
enough to remember a phone number before you dial it.
 Long-term memory has the capacity to store a vast amount of
information for as little as 30 seconds and as long as a lifetime.
o Sensory Memory
 Sensory memory comes in two forms:
 Iconic memory is a brief visual record left on the retina of the eye.
 Echoic memory is short-term retention of sounds.
o Short-Term and Working Memory
o https://www.google.com/search?
q=short+term+memory&rlz=1C1GCEU_enQA1019QA1019&source=lnms&tbm
=vid&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiTmtrDlO_9AhVVO-
wKHViuAxQQ_AUoA3oECAEQBQ&biw=1424&bih=772&dpr=1#fpstate=ive
&vld=cid:f196bb75,vid:cnNx9R1At9s
o
 If we hold a limited amount of information for a short period of time while
working on a problem or carrying out an action, we are making use of our
working memory.
 Associated with intellectual ability and intelligence.
 The short-term memory capacity of most people is between five and nine
units of letters, digits, or chunks of information, but there are substantial
individual differences in this capacity.
 One of the best ways to increase short-term memory capacity is to trans-
form what you want to remember into a smaller set of meaningful units, or
chunks, a process known as chunking (Thompson & Madigan, 2005).
 How Working Memory Works
 Alan Baddeley (2003, 2007), has suggested that working memory
consists of three distinct processes: attending to a stimulus, storing

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 information about the stimulus, and rehearsing the stored process
to help solve a problem.
 The central executive decides where to focus attention and
selectively hones in on specific aspects of a stimulus. Attention
allows us to focus on the task at hand and develop a plan for
solving a problem.
 Once information is taken in and attended to, it is sent to a
temporary store: the visuospatial sketchpad if it is visual or spatial
information, the episodic buffer if it is a specific event or
experience, or the phonological loop if it is sound or linguistic
information.

 The visuospatial sketchpad, as the name implies, briefly provides

storage for visual and spatial sensations, such as images, photos,
scenes, and three- dimensional objects.
 The episodic buffer is a temporary store for information that will
become long-term memories of specific events. You can think of
the episodic buffer as being like a buffer in your computer
software.
 Saving it transfers the material from the buffer into long-term
memory. The phonological loop assists the central executive by
providing extra storage for a limited number of digits or words for
up to 30 seconds at a time. The storage system allows us to hold
memory traces for a few seconds before they fade.
 The three storage systems each require rehearsal if the information
is to be remembered for any length of time. Rehearsal is the
process of reciting or practicing material repeatedly.
 The Serial Position Effect is the tendency to have better recall for items in
a list according to their position in the list.
 The tendency to preferentially recall items at the beginning of a list
is known as the primacy effect, whereas recall for items at the end
of a list is known as the recency effect
 https://www.google.com/search?
q=short+term+memory&rlz=1C1GCEU_enQA1019QA1019&sour
ce=lnms&tbm=vid&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiDqISRqPH9AhVC_q
QKHe_KBeAQ_AUoAnoECAEQBA&biw=1424&bih=727&dpr=
1#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:30186b50,vid:WfIbP8a4x8A
o Long-Term Memory
o https://study.com/learn/lesson/long-term-memory-types-examples.html

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 o Long-Term Memory is “any information that is stored for at least 30 to 40
seconds and up to a lifetime,” things that you remember from earlier today—the
topic of a psychology lecture, for example—are also in long-term storage.
o There are two distinct kinds of LTM and four distinct stages of processing.
 Types of Long-Term Memory
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJsBx3aHSw8
 1. Implicit Memory is also known as nondeclarative. This is when
we know or remember something but don’t consciously know we
remember it. There are two forms:

o a) Procedural memory is a form of implicit memory;

includes knowledge for almost any behavior or physical
skill we learn. (play golf, ride a bike , tie a shoe)

o b) Priming is a form of implicit memory that occurs when

recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar
stimuli.

 2. Explicit memory is also known as declarative. It is the

conscious recall of facts and events. There are two forms of
explicit memory.

o a) Semantic memory is memory for facts and knowledge.

o b) Episodic memory is memory for the experiences we

have had.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
MEMORY AND THE BRAIN
 There are two major neurological systems involved in every aspect of memory: neurons
and brain regions.
o Neurons grow and change with the birth and death of memories.
o Distinct regions of the brain are most involved in the birth and death of memories.
 Neuroplasticity and Memory
o Hebb developed a theory of how neural connections form and how synaptic
connections change with learning.
o Long-term potentiation (LTP) occurs. LTP is the strengthening of a synaptic
connection that results when a synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites
another neuron.
o Repeated stimulation of a group of neurons leads to the formation of cell
assemblies.
o Neurons that “fire together, wire together.”
o If repeatedly stimulated they will form long term bond. If not they will not form a
long term bond. It will be "use it or lose it".
o Milner's work with H.M. supported Hebbs work.
o Kandel and his colleagues discovered that both the timing and frequency of neural
firing are crucial in making a memory permanent. By repeatedly pulling away
from a shock, the sea slug rehearsed and remembered a defensive behavior.
o Repeated experience or stimulation changes genes and the way they are
expressed. The longer a memory is held and the more emotional arousal that is
tied to the memory, the more synaptic connections are formed. Thus, your brain
changes and the memories are less likely to be lost. Experiences change our brain,
which in turn changes how we respond to our environment.

CONNECTION: Kandel’s findings explain how and why the brains of mice reared in enriched
environments are heavier and have more dendrites than the brains of mice reared in
impoverished environments. See “Brain Plasticity and Neurogenesis,” in the chapter “The
Biology of Behavior.” (p. 105)
Psychology in the Real World: Manipulating Memory with Drugs and Drinks
 There is research that is both basic and applied to show how and why particular drugs do
or do not enhance memory.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
  Memory researchers, including Kandel, have been doing research to find new drugs
dealing with memory.
o This research has demonstrated the power of the gene- regulating protein CREB
to help form memories (Alberini & Chen, 2012; Stern & Alberini, 2013; Xia et
al., 2009; Yin et al., 1995).
 A number of memory-oriented biotech companies, however, have started developing
memory-enhancing drugs (Mangialasche et al., 2010).
o The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved two drugs for the
treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: Aricept and Reminyl.
 these drugs boost levels of acetylcholine, a memory-enhancing
neurotransmitter that is deficient in Alzheimer’s patients (Birks, 2009;
Hansen et al., 2008).
o Laboratory research has found drugs that block or dampen the process of memory
formation.
 These drugs block protein synthesis required for forming new long-term
memories (Cai et al., 2012; Soeter & Kindt, 2015).
 The most obvious application of this kind of drug is to prevent traumatic
experiences—such as abuse, car accidents, or war experiences—from
developing into posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a condition in which
a person who has experienced an extremely traumatic event, such as being
a crime victim or a soldier in battle, relives the event over and over.
o Pseudoscience often tells us about many unscientific claims about pills and herbs
with regard to memory.
o Scientific research on herbs is mixed. More research is still underway to support
or refute pseudoscientific claims.
 Brain Regions Most Involved in Memory
o Sensory memories are processed (encoded) in the various sensory cortexes;
short-term memory is processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobes; and
long-term memories are stored in different parts of the cortex and sub-
cortex and retrieved with the help of areas associated with the prefrontal
cortex.

o Sensory Memory and the Brain

Sensory memories are processed (encoded) in the various sensory
cortexes.
CONNECTION: Why do smells evoke particularly strong and specific memories?
See “Smell (Olfaction),” in the chapter “Sensing and Perceiving Our World”. (p. 152)
o Short-Term and Working Memory and the Brain

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 
Short-term memory is processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobes.

New techniques such as high resolution imaging and optogenetics (a
combined technique of light (opto) and genetics to manipulate and
stimulate precise clusters of neurons) have recently uncovered much more
precise regions of the hippocampus, such as the dentate gyrus and C1 and
C3, involved in memory formation (Denny et al., 2014; Goshen, 2014;
Nabavi, Fox, Proulx, Lin, Tsien, & Malinow, 2014; Yushkevich et al.,
2015).
CONNECTION: Optogenetic techniques are now being used to treat various mental disorders,
from depression and anxiety to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and alcoholism.
See “Emerging Therapies” in chapter “Treatment of Psychological Disorders”. (p. 636)
o Long-Term Memory and the Brain
 Long-term memories begin with sensations being processed into output
from cortical sensory association areas such as the auditory or visual
association areas. Depending on the kind of memory system involved, the
output goes to different brain regions. For instance, when we are learning
to do things (implicit procedures) output goes mostly to the cerebellum
and striatum. When we experience an emotional event, output goes to the
amygdala. When we consciously and explicitly remember personal events
(episodes), facts and information, output goes mostly to the hippocampus.
After being processed by the hippocampus, however, the memory is stored
back in the cortical association area from where it came.
 H.M. had a very difficult time making new long-term explicit memories,
due to the damage of his hippocampus and surrounding areas. He could
learn tasks like the star-tracing task, however, because his cerebellum and
striatum, which are involved in implicitly learning to carry out procedures,
were intact.
 Explicit long-term memories are stored in the cortex, specifically in the
area where the original sensation was processed. Implicit memories are
stored in structures in the subcortex, specifically in the striatum,
amygdala, and cerebellum.
 Implicit memories are also processed and stored in different parts of the
brain. Priming, for example, occurs mostly in the cortex. Procedural
memories for skills and habits involve the striatum. The amygdala is
crucial for associating particular events with emotional responses such as
happiness or fear. When we learn to associate a neighbor’s house with a
mean dog and we become afraid of going there, the amygdala is the part of
our brain that is most involved.
 As we have mentioned, memories for behaviors and skills are implicit, and
we process them mostly in the subcortex. Explicit memories for events

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 and facts we process and store mostly in the cortex. This can occur only if
the hippocampus is intact and can pass them on for long-term cortical
storage. Even if part of the hippocampus is removed, we cannot easily
form new long-term memories.
 Long-term memories are stored in different parts of the cortex and
subcortex and retrieved with the help of areas associated with the
prefrontal cortex.
 Challenging Assumptions in Brain Stimulation and Memory
o There is a growing body of research that stimulating the brain with weak
electrical charges can enhance memory and learning.
o Electrical stimulation of the brain is called transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS).
o A weak voltage is given by at least two electrodes on the scalp (at least one
positive and one negative).
o Positively charged stimulation increases memory in general.
o Negatively charged stimulation interferes with memory.
MALLEABILITY OF MEMORY
 Reconsolidation
o A process known as reconsolidation happens when the reactivation of a
memory temporarily weakens the original memory and a new consolidation
happens, but this time resulting a slightly different memory (Cai et al.,
2012; Kroes et al., 2014; Nader et al., 2000; Soeter & Kindt, 2015).
o The process of remembering changes our original memory.
o The original research on reconsolidation by Nader and colleagues (2000)
was the inspiration behind the romantic science-fiction movie Eternal
Sunshine of the Spotless Mind.
 Selective and Divided Attention
o Attention by its very nature is selective, otherwise we would be completely
overwhelmed by the chaos of sensory experience.
o Each person selects different information to pay attention to, even in the same
event.
o Divided attention is similar to yet different from selective attention. Di-
vided attention exists when we are trying to focus on more than one activity
at once.
o When we try to focus on multiple activities at once, and are distracted during the
encoding process, our memory for either activity suffers
 Eyewitness Testimony

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 o Elizabeth Loftus has conducted the most systematic research on two major types
of memory distortion: eyewitness testimony and false and recovered memories.
 Eyewitness testimony can sometimes be the deciding evidence presented
at a trial, so the reliability of eyewitnesses’ recall is a central concern for
judges, lawyers, and jurors.
 Historically, lawyers and jurors have been prone to believe the testimony
of eyewitnesses unless it was contradicted by firm, hard evidence.
 As it turns out, there are lots of problems with the eyewitness memories of
crimes (Schacter & Loftus, 2013).
 False Memories
o Memories for events that never happened but were suggested by someone or
something.
o With a false memory, an individual develops an actual memory, sometimes very
elaborate and detailed, based on false information.
 Recovered Memories
o A recovered memory is supposedly from a real event—a memory that was en-
coded and stored but is not retrieved for a long period of time; the memory is
retrieved after a later event brings it suddenly to consciousness. Recovered memo-
ries have been blocked or repressed for years.
o Recent research shows that people who suffered childhood sexual abuse do, in
fact, have less specific autobiographical memories than people who did not suffer
childhood sexual abuse (Raymaekers et al., 2010).
o Traumatic events may alter how people store memories and, as a defense, make
them less likely to be specific in their recall.
 Suggestibility and Misinformation
o Another form of memory distortion and malleability is suggestibility, which
occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions,
comments, or suggestions from someone else or some other source.
o We are most prone to suggestions that are present in the interval between our
original experience and the time we are asked to recall it.
o Elizabeth Loftus has conducted the most systematic research on two major types
of memory distortion: eyewitness testimony and false and recovered memories.
Loftus and her colleagues, however, were among the first memory researchers to
demonstrate that people’s memories of events, even under the best of
circumstances, are not very accurate and are susceptible to suggestion.
o Loftus and her colleagues have found that the type of question that is asked has an
effect, that is, does the question involve a misleading suggestion. The specific
words used in questioning have an effect on an individual’s memories. The most

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 disturbing example of suggestibility comes from research on false memories and
recovered memories.
o The misinformation effect occurs when information learned after the original
event (crime) is wrong or misleading but gets incorporated into the memory as
true (Loftus, 2005).
o Even brief exposure to misinformation can lead to long-term false memories (Zhu
et al., 2012).
o The good news is that the misinformation effect can be greatly reduced (cut in
half) by simply warning people in advance that not all information may be
accurate (Blank & Launay, 2014).
FORGETTING AND MEMORY LOSS
 Forgetting is the weakening or loss of memories over time.
 Forms of Forgetting
o One reason that people forget is interference. Interference is when other
information competes with the information we are trying to recall. There are two
forms of interference.
 Retroactive interference is when new experiences or information
increase the forgetting of old information.
 Proactive interference is when old experiences or information increase
the forgetting of new information.
 Perhaps the serial position effect occurs because the process of
remembering the first words interferes proactively with recall of the
middle words.
o Research on forgetting began in the 1880s with Herman Ebbinghaus, who found
that recall shows a steady decline over time (Erdelyi, 2010).
o This decline is what is now called Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve.
o Absentmindedness is a form of forgetfulness that involves attention as well as
memory. When attention is divided, forgetting occurs. Absentmindedness
increases with age, but it typically is not a problem until people reach their 70s.
Due to slowing of processing speed and less ability to filter out irrelevant
information with age, some degree of dementia or age-related memory decline is
common in people in their 60s and 70s. Yet as is true with all cognitive capacities,
there are vast differences among individuals in memory decline with age.
o Regular aerobic exercise, higher education level, and certain personality traits act
as a buffer against age-related memory decline (Caselli et al., 2016; Nouchi et al.,
2014; Schmand et al., 1997; ten Brinke et al., 2015).
o Blocking is a retrieval error where one can’t quite get the information out of
memory for use. An example is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon where the
information seems to be at the tip of our tongue but full retrieval eludes us.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 o Related to blocking is the idea of repression, where arguably memories that have
been encoded and stored are actively inhibited.
CONNECTION: Most people think they can multitask well. Research shows otherwise—
especially when it comes to talking on the phone while driving. See “Sustained Attention,” in the
chapter “Consciousness.” (p. 222)
 Memory Loss Caused by Brain Injury and Disease
o Amnesia: when people forget due to injury or disease to the brain.
o Anterograde amnesia: the failure to form new memories after injury or the onset
of a disease.
o Retrograde amnesia: the failure to remember information from shortly before
the onset of the disease or injury.
o Alzheimer’s disease: a severe form of age-related memory loss due to organic
brain disease.
Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Memory: How to Study
Chapter Review
 Students often use this section as the opportunity to ask, “How can I use this material to
study more efficiently?” Like all memories, how well you remember this material begins
with encoding.
 Go to class and pay attention! Attending and paying attention in lecture is a first, very
important step. If there is something you don’t understand when the instructor first
mentions it, ask a question about it right away.
 Read the text before class! Reading through both lecture material and book material
before going to class primes you for taking in lecture material in a deep and meaningful
way.
 Study deeply, not shallowly. The levels of processing theory can help you learn how you
approach studying. According to depth of processing theory and research, the more
deeply you process material, the better it is recalled. Make connections with the material
and other things you know, take a few moments after each class to absorb the material
and try to process it.
 Form a study group. Getting together with a few other students to review and discuss
material before an exam can be enormously helpful.
 Devise meaningful mnemonics. Using an easy-to-remember mnemonic device during
encoding may make it easier to retrieve information later. For example, I use “there’s a
hippo lost on campus” to remember that the hippocampus is responsible for memory.
 Get good sleep. As we have seen in both the chapter “Consciousness” and this chapter,
getting a good night’s sleep is one of the best and most effective ways to consolidate
what we learn during the day.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
KEY TERMS
absent-mindedness: a form of forgetfulness that results from inattention.
amnesia: memory loss due to injury or disease to the brain.
anterograde amnesia: the inability to remember events and experiences that occur after an
injury or the onset of a disease.
associative network: a chain of associations between related concepts. Each concept or
association in a network is referred to as a node. The links between the nodes are associations.
automatic processing: encoding that happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task.
blocking: the inability to retrieve some information once it is stored.
chunking: the process of breaking down a list of to-be-remembered items into a smaller set of
meaningful units.
consolidation: the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory.
effortful processing: when we carefully attend to and put conscious effort into remembering
information.
encoding: the process of attending to, taking in, and processing new information by the brain.
episodic memory: memory for the experiences we have had.
explicit memory: the conscious recall of facts and events; also known as declarative memory.
false memories: memories for events that never happened, but that were suggested by someone
or something.
flashbulb memories: detailed, especially vivid memories of very specific, highly charged
events.
forgetting: the weakening or loss of memories over time.
forgetting curve: a graphic depicting of how recall steadily declines over time.
hierarchies: a way of organizing related information from the most specific feature they have in
common to the most general.
highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM): occurs when people can recall in
considerable detail personal events from almost any day of their adolescent and adult life.
implicit memory: knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills that we perform
automatically once we have mastered them; resides outside conscious awareness.
interference: when other information competes with the information we are trying to recall.
levels of processing: the idea that the more deeply people encode information, the better they
will recall it.
long-term memory: has the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little as 30
seconds and as long as a lifetime.
long-term potentiation (LTP): results when synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites
another neuron; there is a permanent change in the receiving neuron, the excitatory neuron, or
both, which strengthens the synaptic connection.
memory: the ability to store and use information.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
misinformation effect: occurs when information learned after an original event (e.g., crime) is
wrong or misleading but gets incorporated into the memory as true.
mnemonic device: a device that helps people remember information.
optogenetics: a treatment that uses a combination of light stimulation and genetics to manipulate
the activity of individual neurons.
prefrontal cortex: the prefrontal cortex is the front-most region of the frontal lobes. It plays an
important part in attention, appropriate social behavior, impulse control, and working memory.
priming: when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli.
proactive interference: when previously learned information interferes with the learning of new
information.
procedural memory: implicit knowledge for almost any behavior or physical skill we have
learned.
reconsolidation: occurs when a reactivation of a memory weakens the original memory and a
new consolidation happens, but this time resulting a slightly different memory.
recovered memory: a memory from a real event that was encoded and stored, but not retrieved
for a long period of time; it is retrieved after some later event brings it suddenly to
consciousness.
rehearsal: the process of practicing material repeatedly.
repression: a form of blocking, in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and
stored is actively inhibited.
retrieval: the recovery of information stored in memory.
retroactive interference: when new experiences or information cause people to forget
previously learned experiences or information.
retrograde amnesia: an inability to recall events or experiences that happened before the onset
of the disease or injury.
schemas: ways of knowing that we develop from our experiences with particular objects or
events.
semantic memory: memory for facts and general knowledge, such as what we learn in school.
sensory memory: holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time,
usually about a half a second or less.
serial-position effect: the tendency to have better recall for items in a list, depending on their
position in the list.
short-term memory: temporarily stores a limited amount of information before it is either
transferred to long-term storage or forgotten. Information stays in short-term memory for 2 to 30
seconds.
storage: the retention of memory over time; is the third stage of long-term memory formation.
suggestibility: when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions,
comments, or suggestions by someone else or some other source.
three-stage model of memory: classifies memories based on duration as sensory, short-term,
and long-term memories.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): electrical stimulation of the brain.
working memory: the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand; often
used interchangeably with “short-term” memory.

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Sleep

CONNECTION: Besides the ability to consciously recall a memory, what other forms of
consciousness affect our behav- ior without our knowing it? See “Two Dimensions of
Consciousness: Wakefulness and Awareness,” in the chapter “Consciousness.” (p. 216)
 Discussion: You can refer back to Chapter 6 and altered states. This could be drugs or
suggestibility both effect consciousness and behavior.

CONNECTION: One of the primary functions of sleep is to consolidate memories and facilitate
new neural growth (Chapter 6).
 Discussion: This may be a great time to bring up Ekman’s classic work on the
universality of emotional facial expressions. As research has shown that most humans are
adept at discerning emotional states, perceiving others affective responses may affect
expressions if it follows that attention. There is a strong adaptive value to this, and even
Darwin noticed the survival value of this trait.

Impediments to Memory Formation

CONNECTION: Besides the ability to consciously recall a memory, what other forms of
consciousness affect our behavior without our knowing it? See “Two Dimensions of
Consciousness: Wakefulness and Awareness,” in the chapter “Consciousness.” (p. 216)

Memory and the Brain

CONNECTION: Kandel’s findings explain how and why the brains of mice reared in enriched
environments are heavier and have more dendrites than the brains of mice reared in
impoverished environments. See “Brain Plasticity and Neurogenesis,” in the chapter “The
Biology of Behavior.” (p. 105)

CONNECTION: Why do smells evoke particularly strong and specific memories?

See “Smell (Olfaction),” in the chapter “Sensing and Perceiving Our World”. (p. 152)

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
  Discussion: Students often find olfactory cues to be an interesting subject. You may want
to ask students if there are any smells that evoke strong memories for them. Then point
out that one reason may be the location of the olfactory bulb in the limbic system (which
is the same as the hippocampus).

CONNECTION: Optogenetic techniques are now being used to treat various mental disorders,
from depression and anxiety to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and alcoholism.
See “Emerging Therapies” in chapter “Treatment of Psychological Disorders”. (p. 636)

Forms of Forgetting

CONNECTION: Most people think they can multitask well. Research shows otherwise—
especially when it comes to talking on the phone while driving. See “Sustained Attention,” in the
chapter “Consciousness.” (p. 222)
 Suggested Activity: Have students read:
https://archive.unews.utah.edu/news_releases/drivers-on-cell-phones-are-as-bad-as-
drunks/Drivers on Cell Phones are as Bad as Drunks from researchers at the University
of Utah and write a two-paragraph essay incorporating the text and the article on
multitasking and specifically cell phone use and driving.

INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION
1. Real false memories: Ask students to come up with a favorite early childhood memory.
Then ask them to call their parents and siblings after class to verify its accuracy. It will be
interesting to see if students come in the next class period and say their family reports
that it is a false memory.

2. Memory systems in real life: Ask students how much material they remember from last
semester. Most will report that right after the final they have an inability to remember
anything from that course. This illustrates why the early Atkinson Shiffrin model was
reconceived with the reworking of short-term memory into long-term memory. Students
generally agree that they can hold information for great lengths of time (e.g., semester)
and then are unable to recall that information shortly after. Working memory explains
why this is so.

3. Self and memory: Research in social cognition has shown that people focus most on
self-relevant information. Point out to students that it is not only emotionally arousing

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 information that gets into memory systems well but also anything relevant to self. Thus, it
behooves one to pay attention to self-relevant information and also connect that
information more deeply and show greater recall.

4. Computer models of information processing: You may want to point out to students
that most models of memory deal with how information comes in and goes out. That is, it
is akin to computer models. Point out that although no one believes that memory is
perfectly analogous to a computer, there are some similarities. For example, information
is perceived (say you notice the cute man/woman sitting next to you). Then, because you
might be interested, that information makes its way from the sensory store into working
memory; that is, you store that the cute boy/girl is cute and always sits next to you in
class. You then use the phonological loop to structure a clever comment about the lecture
and thus information is processed and utilized. You can also use the desktop of a
computer as an analogy for working memory. That is, some folks leave things all over the
desktop and then may have difficulty finding what they need; some folks also do the
same thing with memories and thus have recall difficulties. Some students delete also
files they used for a class at the end of the semester, much as they forget what they
learned in that class at the end of the semester. Finally, the computer model works as well
as an analogy to brain injury where the material (code or memory) has difficulty being
recalled. Students again are familiar with the computer and thus often see the similarities
here.

5. Criticisms of the Multi Store Model: You may want to point out that the multi store
model has been criticized as being too linear. The argument here is that unlike a
computer, the human brain is not linear and that it is often processing in parallel. Ask
students what they think about the analogy of brain and computer being similar. Can
memory be processed only in a linear fashion?

6. Drugs and Memory: Kandel purports to have found the link between behavior and long-
term memory and is in talks with a pharmaceutical company to develop a drug for the
treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. What questions does this research raise? Might
Kandel’s discovery be applied to help you learn better or improve studying? Could
scientists engineer genes to create super memory capacity?

7. Recovered Memories: You may want to show one of the Frontline clips on repressed
memories and discuss with students the real problem with a “recovered memory.” You
may also want to illustrate how Freud heavily influenced the past concept of memories
and repression and how the field has moved away from those concepts.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 8. You may want to discuss Gottlieb’s model of epigenetics discussed in Chapter 3, and also
connect to Chapter 5 and point out that Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is
epigenetic in nature as well.

9. You may want to discuss developmental trends in memory systems. Most research shows
that memory systems improve over childhood and remain fairly stable until very late
adulthood and even there, with the exception of source memory, most people who are
healthy and living an active life show no major deficit, save slower times. This also
reinforces Hebb’s “use it or lose it” law.

10. Students will find it difficult to differentiate between the different types of memory
systems. They will also find it very difficult to differentiate implicit and explicit memory
systems. You may wish to utilize CPS clicker questions to ascertain their understanding
of these issues before moving forward.

11. Assign students to doing research on the McMartin trial or other high-profile false
memory cases. Have them locate a case and write a paragraph on how Loftus argues it
would be interpreted today.

12. You may want to enlist the help of your TA or another confederate for a demonstration of
how poor eyewitness testimony can be. Have the confederate come in during the lecture
and cause some form of disruption (maybe yell and then laugh or throw paper wads and
then run out). Next, ask students to describe what they saw: how the person was dressed,
hair color, etc. If you are in a large room make sure the confederate comes into the room
and is in long enough to draw attention. You may even want to ask your confederate not
to wear socks and slightly roll up her or her pant leg. When you are asking the class to
describe the person you may want to add “even down to their socks.” You can see if any
students “construct” a memory of socks.

13. Based on Loftus’s work, ask students if eyewitness testimony ever be used in criminal
trials? Have them defend their answer.

14. If you have Internet access in your classroom, go to and show a video clip of Clive
Wearing, an individual who suffers from both anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

15. Ask students to pretend that something traumatic has happened in their lives. If they
could take a drug immediately after that trauma to help get rid of that memory, would
they take the drug. Ask them why or why not. You may want to collect the papers and
tally the results in terms of yes or no and provide feedback to students.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 16. Ask students to write down all the presidents of United States. You may want to remind
students how many presidents we have had in the United States. Give them a few minutes
to do this exercise. Typically students write the first few and the last few presidents. This
is a great example of the serial position effect. Source: Roediger, H. L., & Crowder, R. G.
(1976). A serial position effect in recall of United States presidents. Bulletin of the
Psychonomic Society, 8, 275–278.

17. Read the following words aloud at a rate of about one word per second:
BED, QUILT, DARK, SILENCE, FATIGUE, CLOCK, SNORING, NIGHT, TOSS,
TIRED, NIGHT, TOSS, TIRED, NIGHT, ARTICHOKE, TURN, NIGHT, REST,
DREAM
Ask students if they heard you say “aardvark.” They typically look at you like you are
nuts. Next, ask them if they heard you say “sleep.” Many will raise their hands even
though sleep is not on the list. Point out the constructive nature of memory. This is a
variation on Deese (1959). Source: Deese. K. (1959). On the prediction of occurrence of
particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58,
17–22.

18. Ask students to share their personal study habits. You may want to comment on how
memorizing “bold letter words” is often not adequate at the college level and that they
should try to adapt their study habits to more rigorous course work.

19. Ask students to list the 50 states. When the students are done, tell them you are not
interested in how many states they wrote down. Tell them instead that you are
interested in how they retrieved the states from their memory. They will begin to tell
you they retrieved the names based on states they have lived, states they have visited, a
visual map, alphabetical, sports team, or region of the country. This is a great springboard
to discussing the value of cues and how we tend to cue ourselves.

20. Ask students what is pictured on the back of a $10 bill. Most students will not know
that it is the Treasury Building. You can use this to discuss encoding.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Suggested Media

1. One interesting case that parallels the case of H.M. is that of Clive Wearing who, much
like H.M., no longer has use of his hippocampus. However, in Clive’s case it was as an
adult after a vicious case of encephalitis. Video of Clive Wearing after his diagnosis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y
2. One thing students are often interested in is mnemonic devices. Here is a great clip of
individuals maximizing memory systems by using mnemonic devices. “Mnemonic
wizards: incredible feats of memory”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=6vsYCSmBcM0&feature=related
3. Students are fascinated with false memories and the false memory controversy. This is a
two-part series involving interviews with Elizabeth Loftus and victims of false memories.
Child abuse, false memories part one (of two): http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=NhZjxkaCkzk
Child abuse, false memories part two (of two): http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=RsXoVYDL_gs&feature=related
4. Students are also fascinated with the eyewitness testimony data. This clip involves a
discussion of children as eyewitnesses via an interview with Stephen Ceci:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GvILUeqq6Kk
5. Movie: 50 First Dates with Drew Barrymore is a cute, lighthearted look at anterograde
amnesia. A few clips from this show students a lighthearted look at amnesia.
6. Memento involves a man with anterograde amnesia searching for his wife’s killers using
notes and messages to himself much as we see in the real case of Clive Wearing. This
film involves fairly graphic material.
7. The Woman Who Can’t Forget: Jill Price.
8. Discovering Psychology: Remembering and Forgetting (Annenberg)
9. Pieces of Mind: Scientific American Frontiers
10. Memory, Part 1 (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg)
11. Memory, Part 2 (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg)
12. Science of Memory (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg)
13. When Eyes Deceive (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg)
14. The Ronald Cotton Case: 60 Minutes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-SBTRLoPuo
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4V6aoYuDcg

Concept Clips (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg)

1. Three Stages of Memory

2. Encoding

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Suggested Websites

1. The Mayo Clinic’s website on amnesia:

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/amnesia/DS01041
2. A legal interpretation of the data on the perils of eyewitness testimony:
http://writ.news.findlaw.com/dorf/20010516.html
3. An article from truth in justice regarding the real effects of misled witness testimony:
http://www.truthinjustice.org/lawstory.htm
4. An excerpt from PBS’s Witness For the Defense: The Accused, the Eyewitness, and the
Expert Who Puts Memory On Trial by Dr. Elizabeth Loftus and Katherine Ketcham:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/dna/photos/eye/text_06.html
5. A nice synopsis of the research and a story of Piaget’s false memory:
http://www.skepdic.com/falsememory.html
6. Elizabeth Loftus website: http://socialecology.uci.edu/faculty/eloftus/
Transcript from the Frontline interview with Dr. Loftus:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/dna/interviews/loftus.html
7. The Multi Store Model: http://changingminds.org/explanations/memory/multi-
store_model.htm
8. Gary Wells website: http://public.psych.iastate.edu/glwells/
9. Memory Demos:
http://psych.hanover.edu/javaTest/CLE/Cognition/Cognition/SerialPosition.html
10. An overview of Kandel’s work:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/kandel-lecture.html
11. Inattentional Blindness: Awareness Test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Ahg6qcgoay4
Can you count the number of white passes? Watch for the dancing bear!

Suggested Readings

Bjorklund, D. F., Bjorklund, B. R., Brown, R. D., & Cassel, W. S. (1998). Children’s
susceptibility to repeated questions: How misinformation changes children's answers and
their minds. Applied Developmental Science, 2, 99–111.
Bjorklund, D. F., Cassel, W. S., Bjorklund, B. R., Brown, R. D., Park, C. L., Ernst, K., & Owen,
F. A. (2000). Social demand characteristics in children's and adults' eyewitness memory
and suggestibility: The effect of different interviewers on free recall and recognition.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 421–433.
Brainerd, C. J. & Reyna, V. F. (1998). When things that were never experienced are easier to
“remember” than things that were. Psychological Science, 9, 484–489.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Ceci, S. J., Ross, D. F., & Toglia, M. P. (1987). Suggestibility in children's memory: Psycholegal
implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116, 38–49.
Corkin, S. (2013). Permanent present tense: The unforgettable life of the amnesic patient, H.M.
Basic.
Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1998). Consciousness and neuroscience. Cerebral Cortex, 8, 97–107.
Ekman, P. & Friesen, W.V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124–129.
Greene, E., Flynn, M. S., & Loftus, E. F. (1982). Inducing resistance to misleading information.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21, 207–219.
Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and
perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 306–340.
Leichtman, M. D., & Ceci, S. J. (1995). The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on
preschoolers’ reports. Developmental Psychology, 31, 568–578.
Loftus, E. F., & Mazzoni, G. A. L. (1998). Using imagination and personalized suggestion to
change people. Behavior Therapy, 29, 691–706.
Loftus, E. F., & Pickrell, J. E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25,
720–725.
Loftus, E. F., & Ketchum, K. (1991). Witness for the defense: The accused, the eyewitness, and
the expert who puts memory on trial. New York: Macmillan.
Loftus, E. F. (1979). The malleability of human memory: Information introduced after we view
an incident can transform memory. American Scientist, 67, 312–320.
Payne, B. K. (2001). Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in
misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 181–192.
Price, J. (2008). The woman who can’t forget: A memoir. Free Pass.
Schacter, D. L. (1990). Perceptual representation systems and implicit memory: Toward a
resolution of the multiple memory systems debate. Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 608, 543–571.
Schacter, D. L. (1995). Implicit memory: A new frontier for cognitive neuroscience. In M. S.
Gazzaniga (Ed). The Cognitive Neurosciences. (pp. 815–824). Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Schacter, D. L., Norman, K. A., & Koustaal, W. (1998). The cognitive neuroscience of
constructive memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 289–318.
Thompson-Cannino, J., & Cotton, R. (2009). Picking Cotton: Our memoir of
injustice and redemption. New York: St. Martin’s Press. (The story of Ronald Cotton and
mistaken eyewitness testimony.)
Toglia, M. P., Neuschatz, J. S., & Goodwin, K. A. (1999). Recall accuracy and illusory memory:
When more is less. Memory, 7, 233–256.
Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychologist, 26, 1–12.

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Wearing, D. (2006). Forever today. London: Corgi Books. (This is the story of Clive Wearing, a
gifted musician, who can only keep information in his short-term memory for a few
seconds.)
Zeisel, J. (2009). I’m still here: A breakthrough approach to understanding
someone living with Alzheimer’s. New York: Avery.
Seven sins of memory http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000064E9-8F6F-1FE3-
8F6F83414B7F0103&pageNumber=1 (A Scientific American article featuring an
interview with Dan Schacter.)

Copyright © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.