ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2

Unit II. Components of Special and Inclusive Education and Children’s Development

Sub-topics:

1. Components of Special and Inclusive Education

A. Childfind
B. Assessment
C. Placement
D. Accomodations and Curricular Modification
E. Parent Involvement
2. Typical and Atypical Development among Children
A. Infancy (Birth to 2 years)
B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years)
C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)
D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)

Objectives:

 Identify the components of special education and explain processes involved within and across these
components.
 Observe and describe typical and atypical development among leaners.

Time Frame:

Week 7 to 12

Lesson 5. (Week 7 to 9) COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Learning Outcome: At the end of this session, students will be able to:

Identify the components of special education and explain processes involved within
and across these components.

Activity 1: Ask yourself

1. Is there a legal basis of Inclusive Education in the Philippines?

2. What are the components?
3. Briefly describe the process involve.

COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

A comprehensive inclusive program for children with special needs has the following components:
1. Child Find. This is locating where these children are through the family mapping survey, advocacy
campaigns and networking with local health workers. The children with special needs who are not in
school shall be listed using Enclosure No. 1. These children shall be visited by Special Education
(SPED) teachers and parents should be convinced to enroll their children in SPED Centers or schools
nearest their home.

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
2. Assessment. This is the continuous process of identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the child
through the use of formal and informal tools for proper program grade placement. Existing SPED
Centers in the Division shall assist regular schools in the assessment process.
3. Program Options. Regular schools with or without trained SPED teachers shall be provided
educational services to children with special needs. These schools shall access educational services
from SPED Centers or SPED trained teachers.The first program option that shall be organized for
these children is a self-contained class for children with similar disabilities which can be mono-grade
or multi-grade handled by a trained SPED teacher.The second option is inclusion or placement of the
child with disabilities in general education or regular class where he/she learns with his/her peers
under a regular teacher and/or SPED trained teacher who addresses the child’s needs.

The third option is a resource room program where the child with disabilities shall be pulled out from
the general education or regular class and shall report to a SPED teacher who provides small
group/one-on-one instruction and/or appropriate interventions for these children.

4. Curriculum Modifications. This shall be implemented in the forms of adaptations and

accommodations to foster optimum learning based on individual’s needs and potentials. Modification
in classroom instructions and activities is a process that involves new ways of thinking and
developing teaching-learning practices.It also involves changes in any of the steps in the teaching-
learning process. Curriculum modifications shall include service delivery options like cooperative or
team teaching, consulting teacher program and others. The provision of support services from
professionals and specialists, parents, volunteers, and peers or buddies to the children with special
needs is an important feature in the inclusion program.
5. Parental Involvement. This plays a vital role in preparing the children in academic, moral and
spiritual development. Parents shall involve themselves in observing children’s performance,
volunteering to work in the classroom as teacher aide and providing support to other parents.
2. District and school-based special education and regular teachers, administrators and parents need to
collaboratively develop and facilitate the most effective program for children with disabilities. This program
shall be included in the School Improvement Plan (SIP).
3. To realize the successful implementation of inclusive education in the schools, the duties and responsibilities
of DepED officials are defined in Enclosure No. 2.
4. Officials at the division, region and central offices shall provide the needed training on inclusive education to
administrators, teachers and other school staff; regularly monitor the implementation of the program and
provide the corresponding technical assistance needed and conduct evaluation to determine the effectiveness
of the program and improve its implementation.
5. Immediate dissemination of and compliance with this Order is directed.

Source: DO_s2009_72 https://rb.gy/vsrl0c

CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying students who have additional needs
and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities. School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary
school teachers, and community-based daycare workers are often the first to notice such developmental delays in
children. In other instances, the parents themselves ·notice the delays and seek consultation with pediatricians and other
specialists.

A. Pre-referral Process
A child noted to have significant difficulties in relation to expected competencies and developmental, milestones
may be referred by parents and teachers for observation and _assessment. A team of professionals, known as a pre-
referral team, is comprised of special education teachers, counselors, administrators, and psychologists who collaborate
to determine reasons for the observed challenges (Hallahan et al. 2014). They collaborate to find ways to meet the needs
of children with developmental delay.
Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre- referral process. Children with noted
developmental delays and difficulties are identified through observations and use of norm- and criterion- referenced
tests. They are not immediately referred for special education testing but are first provided with the necessary academic

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
and behavioral support needed to address noted challenges. In his assessment model, Taylor (2009) explained that the
initial step is to determine teaching areas where a learner will benefit from additional support through a variety of means.
Very young students who are at-risk or suspected to have additional needs may also be identified through
community-based screening. Child development and social workers use developmental screening tools such as the Early
Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Checklist that covers items expected for a child’s typical development. Once
a program of pre-referral intervention has been designed, implementation and evaluation follow to determine how
effective it is in addressing the needs of the child. Figure 4.1shows the pre-referral process and strategies.

B. Pre-referral Strategies
Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of pre-referral strategies that are designed to provide immediate
instructional and/or behavior management support to a child. Using such strategies lessens the number of cases referred
for special education and makes efficient use of time and financial resources that could have been spent for special
education assessment (Heward 2013). Thiswill also lessen the tendency of over-referrals to special education and
wasting time as children wait to be tested rather than receive the instructional and behavioral support they need.
Examples of pre-referral strategies are: observation of the child's behavior, including interactions with parents,
teachers, and peers; interview of parents and teachers to gather more information about the child; review of school
records; and analysis of the child's academic output through error analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-referenced
and curriculum- based assessment (Taylor 2009). Depending on the information gathered, corresponding changes can
be made to manage the child's needs, such as modification of the classroom environment (e.g., seating arrangement,
group change, and teacher's proximity in class), instructional support, and relevant classroom and behavior management
(Mcloughlin & Lewis 2009).

• Recognition of potential problems

Initial Identification • Parent or teacher observation Review of school
records, classroom observations.
Determination of teaching areas and • Small group instruction
strategies • Direct instruction

• Additional in-class or after-school support

Implementation of teaching programs • Modification of classroom environment and behavior
• Modification of instruction to address potential needs.
Evaluation of teaching program • Determine effectiveness of programs on learning and
behavior.
Figure 4-1. Pre referral process
If despite provision of additional support, struggles and difficulties persist, then the child is referred for
assessment either within the school, if such services are available, or referred to a professional for further assessment.
What is essential at this point is that the teachers have implemented a variety" of approaches and practices to ensure that
support is provided before formal assessment.
Carl's Pre-Referral Process
Ms. Reyes, a 3rd Grade teacher, has always been baffled by one of her students, Carl. She has observed that
Carl is very creative. He loves to draw and is quite good at it. He is fluent and conversant in English and can create such
imaginative stories. She noted, however, that unlike his peers who can already read short stories for Grade 3 and write
paragraphs well, Carl is still .struggling at the word level. Although he can create his own stories through oral narration,
he can't seem to write them down without having spelling errors. He gets very frustrated in such tasks that when he
needs to answer essay questions in a test, he just scribbles a word or two and stops trying altogether.
Ms. Reyes, together with the other subject teachers and the Guidance Counselor, discussed Carl'sbehavior and
performance in terms of his strengths, needs, and strategies that have worked in the past. They have noted that giving
him a list of high-frequency words and sight words has been helpful. They suggested to pair him up with a classmate,
who is an able reader to help him during writing tasks. They had a meeting with his parents and informed them that he

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
will be given supplementary reading and writing practice worksheets to be answered at home to build automaticity in
reading. And finally, he was recommended to join an after-school English remedial class to address his reading and
spelling difficulties.

Ms. Reyes decided to refer Carl to the school's Guidance Team to determine reason to account for his difficulties. The
team advised Ms. Reyes on what she needed to do in the pre-referral process. Ms. Reyes collected his sample works
across subject areas, reviewed his report cards from the previous grade levels, and had a sit-down meeting with the rest
of his teachers.
II. ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the process of collecting information about a child's strengths and needs. It uses a problem-
solving process that involves a systematic collection as well as interpretation. (Salvia et al. 2013). Teachers and
administrators make instructional decisions based on the assessment results.

Assessment Purposes
Assessment has a variety of purpose in special and inclusive education. Itbegins with initial identification that
was explained in the previous section in Child Find and the pre-referral process. The results of an assessment are used
to decide on a child's educational placement and to plan instructioal programs for a child identified to have additional
needs. Progress monitoring and evaluation of teaching programs and services is another, the purpose of which is to
determine how effective programs are to assist the inclusive teacher and the special education teacher (Giuliani &
Pierangelo 2012).
There are a variety of assessment methods that regular and special education teachers can use. This section covers the
following: (1) interviews, (2) observations, (3) checklists or rating scales, and (4) tests.

B. Methods of Assessment
Tests. School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and other related professionals use a variety of
assessment tools to ensure that results are valid and reliable. Norm-referenced tests are standardized assessments that
compare a child's performance with a representative sample of students of the same chronological age. Such tests are
rigorously made by a team. Results are reported as percentile ranks and age and grade'equivalent scores, which makes
it easier for professionals to determine class and individual performance. While such quantitative reporting makes it
easier to compare the test performance of children in a class, it has its limitations in terms of use in instructional planning.
Intelligence Tests (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Students and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale) and
Achievement Tests (Wide Range Achievemenr Tests and Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement) are examples of
norm-referenced assessments.

On the other hand, criterion-referenced tests compare a child's performance based on established standards and
competencies and can be used to describe student performance (Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012). Scores
are typically reported as simple numerical scores, percentage of correct responses, letter grades, or graphic score reports.
Such assessment data are more usef ul and relevant as these provide specific skills a child has mastered and those that
need additional instruction (Gargiulo 2012).

Informal Assessment. Professionals also · use informal or non-- standardized assessments, which are considered
more authentic and thus can be used primarily to describe performance and inform instruction. Such assessments can be
curriculum-based or performance-based, such as the teacher-made instruments used in Classrooms and portfolio
assessments. For example, the use of reading inventories where a teacher listens to a child read while counting for
accuracy and speed is an example of an informal assessment.
Authentic Assessment. The use of tests, whether formal or informal, is only one method of assessment. There are
other ways of assessing students considered at-risk for developmental delays or have additional needs: One that is highly
recommended by professionals is the use of authentic assessment methods and tools. Authentic assessments provide
students the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-world settings (e.g., classroom, playground,
etc.) rather than in an artificial and contrived setting (Dennis.et al. 2013). Assessment tasks that are more real- life are
considered more authentic.
An example of authentic assessment is observation of young students as they interact with family members, peers
and objects in naturally occurring activities across settings (e.g., home, school, playground, etc.), and routines. · During
observations, teachers and specialists can use running records which focuses on the occurrence of behaviors as they
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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
happen sequentially. Clay (2000 as cited in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential information to be included in a
running record:

 Date and time of the observation

 Names of children involved
 Location of the incident
 Verbatim recording of what the children said
 Actual events that occurred
Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents or anecdotes that teac'hers and specialists can use to
analyze a student's behavior and plan strategies for a specific child or group of children. Other examples of authentic
assessment for young children are play-based assessment and portfolio assessment.
The different assessment methods and tools used to assess Carl after the pre-referral process are discussed in the
following.

Carl's Assessment
Despite the instructional support and after-school remedial class, Carl continued
to display difficulties in reading, spelling, oral reading fluency, and written expression. Because
such difficulties persisted, Ms. Reyes and the team decided to refer him to a developmental
pediatrician and a school psychologist to conduct a psycho educational evaluation to
determine the underlying reasons for Carl's literacy difficulties.

The school psychologist used a battery of tests: intelligence and

1 achievement tests in reading, spelling, written expression, and math. He also interviewed Carl,
his parents, and his teachers to know about his interests, strengths, and views about himself ,
and gathered some of Carl's school work. The school psychologist then analyzed the results and
eventually diagnosed him with a specific learning disability or dyslexia (see Chapter 6).

Carl's current grade level:Grade 3

IQ Average to High Average Level
Reading level Beginning Grade 1
Spelling Beginning Grade 1
Written expression Below Average Reading Comprehension Beginning Grade Listening
Comprehension Grade 4
Math Average

Based on this clinical diagnosis, instructional decisions were made to determine the appropriate placement for
Carl.

C. Assessment Principles
Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided by the Division for Early Childhood of the
Council for Exceptional Student (DEC) (2014). Child- and family-centered practices, a team-based approach,
application of individualized and appropriate process, and use of genuine and meaningf ul communication that adhere
to ethical and legal practices are the recommendations provided by the DEC.
Thus, a variety of assessment methods and tools, use of authentic ceasures, as well as involvement of the family
are necessary to make d€cisions for placement and instructional planning (DEC 2014).
II. PLACEMENT
Assessment results are used to decide a child's appropriate education placement within a continuum from the
.
least to the most restrictive settings. During the evaluation, student performance is assessed and the team determines if
there would be any changes in the educational placement within the continuum. Teams will base this on their
observations, assessment results, and other factors, with the goal to move toward the least restrictive learning
environment. Sound decisions are made to allow for fluidity in the child's placement based on the child's strengths,
abilities, and needs.
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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
Activity 4.2:
What Is the Best Placement for Carl?
Before we continue, let us pause and think about our sample case, Carl. Refer
back to Carl's Assessment to review his background and the assessment results. What
do you think is the best placement for him? If he stays 'in his current school, what
support does be need to meet academic expectations? Should he be pulled out of the
school and study in a special school? Turn to a partner and discuss your insights. Be
ready to share with the class.

A general education classroom is the least restrictive environment for a child with additional needs. Access to
the same learning experiences and opportunities is provided as to typically developing students. Thus it is considered as
the "most normalized or typical setting" (Gargiulo, 2012). Additional support in the form of accommodations or changes
in expectations through curriculum modifications may be provided but still within the same classroom as peers within
the year level.
Another option for placement is to be in a general education class but the child receives supplementary
instruction and services such as speech, physical, and occupational therapy or counseling services during the school day.
Options may be provided when such sessions are conducted, either during school or as an after-school service.
Students who may be part of a general education class are pulled-out of their class to receive instruction from
a specialist teacher in a resource room. In such a placement, it is assumed that the child will benefit more from either a
small-group or individualized instruction with a specialist teacher who will be able to more intensively target his
learning needs.
Other students need more intensive support that is not provided in a general education class. Teams may
decide to recommend placement for a child in a more restrictive setting such as a self-contained special education
class but still located in a general education school. In this learning environment, all students receive individualized
and group instruction with peers with disabilities and additional needs from a special education teacher.
Depending on the program goals, students may be given the opportunity to ' interact with typically developing
peers through school community-building activities.
Moving up in the placement continuum, some students who need more intensive instruction and supports are
educated in a special education class in a special education school. Teams of professionals, along with the special
education teacher, work with students with disabilities and additional needs in a highly specialized setting.
On the other end of the continuum is the most restrictive or isolated setting, such as a residential facility where
students live and receive their educational support twenty-four hours a day. Finally, children with multiple disabilities,
often of the severe kind, are provided with home- or hospital- based programs to manage their medical condition and
learn as much as they could.
Inclusive education espouses that all students, to the maximum extent possible, isprovided acess to general
education classroo with the provision of support to remove barriers to enable success. Figure. 4.2 presents this
continuum of educational placement options (Spinelli 2012).

Home/Hospital program

Residential facility

Special education class in a special

education
Self-contained special education class in a
general education
General education class with resource center
instruction

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
General education class (inclusion or co-taught with a
special education teacher)

General educat ion class with related services

General education class with modifications

Figure 4.2. Educational placement options.

ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURR ICULAR MODIFICATIONS

Students with disabilities and addi.tional needs who are studying in an inclusive general education classroom may need
accommodations in the form of instructional support and other supplementary services. Others who need more intensive
support are provided with curricular modifications.

A. Accommodations
Based on the definition, accommodations are supports provided to students to help gain full access to class content and
instruction, without altering the curriculum standards and competencies expected and to demonstrate accurately what
they know. When accommodations are provided in a general education classroom for children with disabilities, barriers
are removed from accessing education. As a result, children can work around the effect of their disabilities. Examples
of accommodations are altering instruments, toys or materials, changing the room during specific activities, providing
time extensions or allowances for tests and tasks, and changing response formats in worksheets.
Accommodations may be provided both during assessment and instruction, depending on the learning profile and needs
of a child and may vary in terms of presentation, response, setting, and scheduling (Beech 2010).
Presentation Accommodations
Children with disabilities may need specialized presentation formats especially those with sensory
impairments so they can learn the same content alongside typically developing peers. Table 4:1presents examples of
accommodations in presentation.

Table 4.1.Accommodations in presentation

Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations

Visual support Minimize visual distraction
Visual cues (e.g., use color-coded text, highlighting) Use of larger print
materials (font size, illustrations) Use of sign language
Videos with closed captioning

Auditory and Read aloud by a peer Audio books

comprehension Digital text that reads aloud or gives definition of words Text-to-speech
support software
Advance organizer or story guide Highlighting or color coding

Listening and focusing Advance organizer

Explicit verbal or visual cues; physical prompts Repeat/Clarify directions
and important information Note-taking support
Copy of directions

Response Accommodations
Response accommodations allow students with disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways to complete
assignments, written tests, performance tasks, and other activities. Providing such instructional and assessment
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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
supports allows them to access the same learning experiences as other students in a general education classroom.
Table 4.2 summarizes examples of response accommodations for students with disabilities and additional
needs.

Table 4.2 Response Accomodations

Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations

Writing difficulty (e.g. errors in Different size/diameter of pencil, marker, or crayon Pencil or pen grip
spacing, visual-perceptual or (triangular, pear-shaped)
spatial orientation, illegible Scribe to record dictated responses Finger spacer
handwriting Handwriting template/guide on the student's desk Visual cues on paper
Different types and sizes of paper

Written expression difficulty Electronic dictionary with spell check Online dictionary
Word processor with spelling and grammar check Writing cue cards,
List of sight words
Writing templates, outlines, and graphic organizers

Math difficulty Calculator

Concrete models and manipulatives Visual representation
Problem-solving guides Graphic organizers
Special paper -graphing paper for computation

3. Setting Accommodations
Changes in the location or conditions of the educational setting or environment may be necessary for students
who need support in ·terms of behavior, attention, and organization of space and materials. Accommodation in a
setting may allow a child who gets easily distracted to work in a quiet corner of the · classroom in his own study carrel
so that he will not be sidetracked by environmental stimuli. Or a child who is still unable to read fluently may be allowed
to take a silent reading comprehension test in another room with a ·supervising adult just so she could hear herself read
aloud which helps her better understand the story.

4. Scheduling Accommodations
Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments, and management of time are some types of scheduling
accommodations. Students with slower ability in processing information and directions well as with focusing issues
may need these types of accommodation. Some examples of accommodation that can modify scheduling are: (1)
extending time for assignments and assessments; (2) providing breaks in-between tasks;(3)providing a visual schedule
or a checklist of individual responsibilities; (4) providing predictable routines and procedures; and (S) providing an
electronic device with alarms and cues.
B. Modifications
Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significant or severe disabilities where content
expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes are changed in relation to what are expected of typically
developing students 9f the same age (DEC 2007). When instruction and assessment are modified, a student with
disability is still given the right to access the same learning opportunities as other students in the general education class,
but the tasks are more respectful and appropriate to the student's abilities and needs.
Curricular modifications include changes in instructional level, content and performance criteria, as well as the
breadth and depth of content being learned by students. Students with disabilities or additional needs may be given
more, less, or different content and resource materials altogether. They may also be assessed using different standards
that are more appropriate to the student’s needs and abilities, such as being provided with fewer objectives, shorter
lessons, or a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn.

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
Educational teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate curricular modifications in the student's
Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Such modifications are needed so that students also have access to the general
education curriculum.
Let us have a look at Carl's learning profile. Does he need accommodations or curricular modifications? The
text below presents the learning supports Carl receives in the context of his reading and spelling difficulties.

Carl's Learning Supports

Centered Given the significant delays in Carl's reading and spelling performance, the team decided to
provide him with different types of accommodation that adjusted the presentation of what is learned, how he
responds, as well as the timing when tests are given. Ms. Santos prepared his reading materials and worksheets
using a bigger font size and more space in between lines to allow him to point to words as he reads and to use a ruler
so he would not lose his place while reading. In tests that require extensive writing, he is still made to write as much
as could and after which he is asked to either give a verbal explanation support what he has written or he dictates
his oral responses to a scribe. The teacher now considers the oral exam as a respectful accommodation as Carl is
still able to access the same learning standards and opportunities despite his difficulties.

PARENT INVOLVEM ENT

Another component of an inclusive and special education is parent involvement. It has long been established that
parent involvement in education, planning, and management of children with disabilities and additional heeds IS
essential .as they are the primary caregivers and have direct influence an their children. This is anchored on
Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological Theory, which states that there are five environmental systems that comprise a
child's social context. For the purposes of tis book, focus is given on the microsystem, where the child and his/her family
belong, along with peers, school, and the immediate community (i.e:, neighborhood). Within these microsystems, a
child has direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and others; while the mesosystem refers to the linkages or
relationships between microsystems such as the connections between family experiences and school experiences and
between family and peers (Santrock 2011).
Figure 4.3.Ecological Systems Theory
The Division of Early Childhood of the Council of Exceptional
Children (DEC) espoused the use of family-centered practices in the
assessment and instruction of young children. Turnbull and Turnbull
(2002 cited in Kirk et al. 2015) provided the principles of a family-
centered model: (1) honors the family choice by changing the power
relationship between professional and families, (2) abandons a
pathology orientation and adopts a strengths orientation, and (3) where
the entire family becomes the unit of support and not just the child with
a disability and the child's mother (p. 19). In this way, the whole family
is provided support, capitalizing on the child and family members'
strengths and resources, not on their deficits and needs. Teachers and
administrators may also be guided by these principles when
communicating and collaborating with parents and families of students
with disabilities.
Parent involvement has been found to be directly related to academic achievement and improvements in the
school performance of children. Educational support and collaboration with teachers have been found to promote child
success in school (Reschly & Christenson 2009). Moreover, programs for children with disabilities become more
effective and successful when children and families are involved (Newman 2004 cited in Heward 2013).
Home-School Communication
Having established the critical role of parents in a student's developmental and academic progress and
achievement, it is essential that there is a close home and school collaboration and communication. To establish
partnerships, problem-solving, two- way communication, and shared decision making are some of the practices needed.
Communicating with parents may be done in several ways.

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
Parent-Teacher Conferences
Parent-teacher conferences are face-to-face meetings held between parents and teachers. Conducting such
meetings is necessary so parents of students with disabilities and additional needs will be able to share about their child's
background, strengths and abilities, history of difficulties, and practices they have been implementing at home as well
as interventions done with other specialists. together with teachers, they can coordinate their efforts and services to
support their child both in school and at home.
Schools differ when it ·comes to the frequency of parent teacher conferences. One best practice is to hold a
meeting with parents at the beginning of a school year as part of goal setting for the student with a disability. In this
way, both parents and teachers can set expectations for the year and agree on goals and objectives for the child. This is
also a good opportunity for teachers to establish rapport with parents. Conferences are also held after every grading
period (e.g., every quarter, trimester, and semester) so that progress, changes, and results can be communicated and
discussed with parents and agree on necessary action plans.
Written Communication
Home-school communication may also be condµcted through written messages, such as the use of a home-
sch.ool communication notebook, where teachers andparents writehomework assignments, the student's behavior in the
classroom, as well as progress on program goals. A written communication may be time consuming, but some parents
prefer this form of collaboration as the messages are documented and they can provide a copy to a developmental
specialist when needed.
Digital communication
With the influx of mobile devices, many parents and families are more able to communicate through electronic
and digital means such as email, text messages, and social network messaging systems. A study found that parents and
teachers perceive technology as an effective tool to promote parent involvement ·and thus value its use for
communication (Olmtead 2013). Because it is instant and real-time, parents and teachers are immediately able to
receive messages and updates about the student. However, drawbacks can also occur such as when both parties ·are not
mindful of parameters in communication; hence, it is necessary that parties agree on certain boundaries in order to be
respectful of everyone's time and personal space.
Home-School Contracts
A home-school contract contains an agreement between teachers and parents regarding behavioral and/or
academic goals for a student with disability. Just like any formal contract, this is a written ·agreement between teachers,
parents, and students (when appropriate) on ·specific objectives and corresponding reinforcements or rewards when
they are met.
One example of a home-schopl contract is a Daily Report Card, an individualized intervention used in schools
that is anchored on the behavioral principles of operant conditioning. The card indicates specific behaviors targeted for
a child with disability that are framed as positive statements and targets for improvements. The use of a daily report card
has been found to be beneficial in helping a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in school and in
promoting daily collaboration between teachers and parents (Moore et al. 2016'; Mautone et al. 2012). This will be
further discussed in Chapter 6.

Other Ways to Involve Parents

Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge, and the commitment to help their own child. They become
advocates of their own children. To maximize their involvement, schools provide other opportunities such as parent
education training, workshops, and parent support groups.
a. Parent education may take the form of providing seminars and workshops to parents to equip them with a better
understanding of their child's disability and accompanying strengths, uniqueness, as well as specific techniques
and strategies that they can practice at home. Such training sessions can be for a few hours doe on a quarterly
basis or for a regular period, such as every Saturday, depending on the needs of the parents and the training
capacity of the school. In this way, parents become educated in evidence- based approaches so that there will
be continuity in the practices implemented between the home and school.
b. Parent support groups are also helpful as parents are able to ask other parents about tips and techniques .to
work with their children. Parents should be empowered so that they can participate in planning and organizing
parent support groups. Through sU:ch groups, parents can draw support from one another during meetings as
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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
they share techniques and strategies, even frustrations and successes about their children.
In summary, this chapter has presented the different components of inclusive and special education, which include
the following: pre-referral, assessment, placement, accommodations curricular modifications, and parent involvement.
Across these components, a team approach is highly recommended where each member-the child, parents, general
education teacher, special education teacher, therapists, and other specialists-coordinate and collaborate in planning and
making decisions for the 'child with disabilities.

A. Anticipation Guide
After reading the chapter, reread the following statements and indicate your answers (either True or False)
under the After Reading column. (Write your answer on a paper).

Statements Before After

Reading Reading

1. A child suspected to have_ a disability should munediately be

referred for special education testing.

2. Norm-referenced tests provide better information for instructional

planning than criterion- referenced tests. ·

3. The least restrictive setting should be considered as placement

for children with disabilities.

4.When providing accommodations, teachers change the

curriculum standards and content to provide a leveled playing
fild for children with disabilities.
5. Programs for children with disabilities become more effective and
successful when children and families are involved.
B. This time, on your own, answer the following questions by using what you have learned from the chapter.
1. What are the different processes as well as strategies used in the pre-referral system in an inclusive school?
2. What are the different assessment methods and tools used to identify the strengths, abilities, needs, and
placement of children with disabilities?
3. How are accommodations different from modifications?
4. Why should parents of children with disabilities be involved in the process of planning and decision making?
C. Give your reflection.
Schools that abide by highly traditional views of teaching and learning oftentimes view accommodations, such as time
extension in tests and exams or providing an alternative output to supplement a lengthy written report, as being
"unfair" to typically developing children. It is argued that expectations and provision of whatever support should be
the same for all children. Knowing the different components as well as views on inclusive education, do you agree?
Explain your answer.

Lesson 6. (Week 10 to 12) TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN

Learning Outcome: At the end of this session, students will be able to:

Observe and describe typical and atypical development among learners.

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 ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2

Activity 1: Ask yourself

1. Do children have different developmental milestones?
2. How do they differ?

Have you ever wondered how children develop? Maybe at one time you have compared your development with
that of a sibling or cousin of yours. If this is the case, you are interested in child development which is the pattern of
growth, change, and stability that occurs from conception up until adolescence. Children do not grow at the same rate
at the same time. This also goes for the students in an inclusive classroom. Knowing their capabilities can help you
better as their teacher. Find out more about their development as this chapter focuses on the typical and atypical
development among children from infancy to adolescence.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE

To ensure that a child meets his/her developmental milestones, it is crucial to observe and monitor his/her
development. The milestones or developmental skills that need to be mastered usually at the same rate act as a guide for
ideal development. It is done by checking the progress of a child based on his or her age to see if the child is developing
within expectations. For others, checking the milestone can help detect any difficulties at a. particular stage.
Intervention can then be given which can help in the development of a child. Usually, it is the parents, teachers,
and pediatricians who use the checklists.
CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
During the early 20th century, interest in child development began, specifically, that which focused on detecting
abnormalities. Certain theories were discovered based on this interest to appreciate the growth that children experience
from birth to adolescence.
A. Psychosocial Development Theory of Erik Erikson
This is an eight-stage theory that describes the changes one goes through in a lifetime. The main focus of
Erikson's theory is the conflicts or crises one experiences through social interaction. Starting from birth, each person is
faced with a conflict that needs to be resolved since it has an impact on the function of the succeeding stages. If one
successfully overcomes the crisis of each stage, a psychological virtue emerges.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

• •Infant
•Toddler
• Pre-schooler
•Grade-schooler
•Teenager
•Young Adult
•Middle-age Adult
•Older Adult

Figure 5.1.Stages of Psychosocial Development.

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
B. Cognitive Developmental Theory of Jean Piaget
This theory is concerned with the thought processes of a person and how they are used to understand and interact with
the environment. Piaget's theory focuses on children's intellectual development and has four stages.
A. Sensorimotor Stage - From birth to two years old, a child's knowledge is limited to his or her use of the
senses.
B. Preoperational Stage - From two to six years old, a child learns through the use of language. However, mntal
manipulation of information does not take place yet.
C. Concrete Operational Stage-From 7 to 11years old,a child begins to think logically and have better
understanding of mental operations. However, abstract concepts are still difficult to understand.
D. Formal Operational Stage - From 12 years old to adulthood, a person has the ability to think in abstract
concepts.
C. Sociocultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky ·
This theory believes that children learn actively through hands- on experiences. Vygotsky highlights the
importance of other people such as parents, caregivers, and peers ·in the development of children. Culture plays an
integral role as well. Interaction with others allows learning to be integrated in the child's understanding of the world.
Also included in the theory is the zone of proximal development, which is the portion in between what one can do o.his
or her own and with help. Children best learn when they are in this zone.

D. Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

This theory believes that learning takes place through observation and modeling. As a child observes the actions
of the people in his or her environment, new information is acquired and new skills are developed.
TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
The development of a child usually follows a predictable pattern. There are certain skills and abilities that are
observed to gauge a child's development are called developmental milestones. Examples of these sitting, babbling, and
following directions. However, each child is unique. With this, not all'reach a milestone at the same time, thus the terms
typical and atypical development. Let us define the two terms first before we look further into what makes a child's
development typical and atypical.
The term typical development refers to the normal progression where children grow by acquiring knowledge,
skills, and behavior called developmental milestones at a certain time frame.
Atypical development is a term used. when development does not follow the normal course. More so, a child
is developing atypically when he/ she reaches a milestone earlier or later than other children his/her age.
There is no clear way to identify if a child is developing typically or atypically. However, there are three commonly
accepted principles of child development that one should look into. The principles are as follows:
1. Rate of development differs among children
2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process
3. Development takes place gradually
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
The developmental milestones are categorized into four domains namely, physical, social and emotional,
language, and cognitive.
The physical domain refers to the development of physical changes such as size and strength. The
development occurs in both gross and fine motor skills.The development of the senses and their uses are also part of
the physical domain which is influenced by illness and nutrition .
A child's experience, expression, and management of emotions along with the ability to establish positive
relationships with others refer to the social-emotional domain. This includes both the intrapersonal and
interpersonal processes that take place in a child.
The language domain refers to the process of acquiring language in a consistent order without the need for
explicit teaching from the environment.
Construction of thought process which includes remembering, problem solving, and decision making refers to
the cognitive domain.
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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2

STAGES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Stages, along with age are used as ranges to mark significant periods in a human development timeline. In each stage,
growth and development occur in the four domains mentioned above.
The stages are as follows:
A. Infancy (birth to 2 years)
B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 y_ears)
C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11years)
D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)

Before we go to the typical and atypical developmental milestones,

1.
2. When you were in grade school, what were the similarities and differences bet ween you and
your classmates?
3. As an adolescent, what are the changes that you have noticed within you?

Table 5.1.Typical and atypical development during infancy

DOMAINS 1YPICAL A1YPICAL

• Holds head without support • Does not hold head up
• Pushes legs down when feet are on flat • Does not put weight on legs
surface • Cannot sit without support
·Rolls over • Does not walk steadily
• Sits without support
PHYSICAL ·Crawls
• Walks
• Begins to run
• Smiles at people • Does not smile
• Likes to play • Shows no affection
• Shy or afraid of strangers • Does not recognize familiar
• Cries when caregiver leaves people
SOCIO- • Copies others
EMOTIONAL • Shows independence
• Makes cooing and • Does not coo and
babbling sounds babble
• Responds to own name • Does not say a single word
• Makes different sounds • Does not speak in sentences
• Responds to simple requests
LANGUAGE • Tries to say words
• Says sentences
• Watches things as they move • Does not watch things as they
COGNITIVE • Uses eyes and hands together move
• Recognizes people at a distance • Does not know what to do with
• Transfers object from one hand to common objects
another
• Explores things in various ways
• Uses things correctly (eats with spoon)
Finds hidden things

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
Early Childhood (3 to 8 years old) is a period of life with slow growth and rapid development. Most
psychologists label this stage as the exploratory and questioning stage since the children enjoy discovering new things
in their surroundings. Interactions with family and the people around them will help shape their development (see Table
5.2).
Table 5.2.Typical and atypical development during early childhood

DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL

DOMAINS  Runs well  Falls down often
PHYSICAL  Climbs easily  Needs help in physical
 Hops and stands on one foot activities
 Can use toilet on his/her own

SOCIO-  Shows affection  Does not want to play with

EMOTIONAL  Takes turns in games others
 Cooperates with other children  Usually withdrawn
 Shows concern and sympathy
 Shows more independence

LANGUAGE  Follows two to three step instructions  Has unclear speech

 Uses pronouns  Can't tell stories articulately
 Tells and retell stories
 Speaks clearly

COGNITIVE  Plays make-believe  Does not play with

 Works with simple toys simple toys or make-believe
 Names colors and numbers  Loses skills once had
 Draws a person
 Names letters
Shows development of mental skills

Middle Childhood (9 to 11years) is a stage that brings various changes in a child's life. Independence is a characteristic
that children in this stage asserts. Developing friendships is another milestone that is evident in this stage. Children
should be given more tasks to develop their sense of responsibility to further develop their growing independence.
Table 5.3.Typical and atypical development during middle childhood
DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL
 Growth spurt may take place
PHYSICAL·  Becomes clumsy Has limited mobility
 Increased in appetite
 Forms stronger friendships Has difficulty making and keeping friends
SOCIO-  Becomes aware of body changes due
EMOTIONAL to puberty
 Shows more concern about looks
 May feel stressed about school work

 Continues to speak clearly  Has unclear speech

LANGUAGE  Expresses one's thought articulately  Can't tell stories articulately

 Increased attention span  Experiences problems with

.COGNITIVE  Sees the view of other people more comprehension and attention
clearly  Unable to keep up with the school's
curriculum
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) is the period where puberty begins. By the end of this stage, most will have
completed puberty. The child is now called a teen during this stage. The teen is becoming more vocal about his/ her

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ED 108– FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Module 2
opinions due to the development of a unique personality. Peer pressure, however, will be present, which is why guidance
from parents and guardians is very much needed.
Table 5.4.Typical and atypical development during adolescence

DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL

• Reaches adult weight and • Limited mobility
PHYSICAL
height
• Becomes interested in • Has limited peer
SOCIO- opposite sex connections
EMOTIONAL • Begins conflict with parents
• Shows more independence • May exhibit inappropriate
from parents behavior in public

LANGUAGE • Continues to speak clearly • Has unclear speech

• Expresses one's thought
articulately • Can't tell stories
articulately
COGNITIVE • Acquires and uses defined • Is below grade level
work habits
• Shows concern about the
future

Recall: Answer the item/questions on your paper

A. Behaviors that are atypical should be observed keenly and recorded carefully. At times, the recorded
observations might just be isolated events with no significant impact on later development. However, they
might also be early warning signs of needs. The observed patterns will be useful to confirm if there is such a
need.
1. State the various child development theories and discuss each one.
2. What are the various child development theories in relation to the different milestones of each stage.
3. Enumerate and discuss the various domains of development.
4. Using the Venn diagram, compare and contrast the different stages in child development.
5.
B. Observe at least five children in your neighborhood. Using the information from Typical and Atypical
Development of Children from the Files uploaded in ED 108 FB Page. Record your observations following
this format.

Child’s Age Developmental Typical Typical Remarks (Is the

Skills Developmental Developmental child typical or
Milestones Milestones atypical? Justify.)
Observed Observed
Example (5) Social and
Emotional

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