Networking

(Part-2)
By:
Ms. Misbah Mashkoor
Lecturer in Computer Science
F.G. Degree College (w) Kharian Cantt.
Communication protocols and network
standards:
 A communications protocol is a set of formal rules describing how to
transmit or exchange data, especially across a network. These rules are
defined in the network software.
 Standards refers to a set of criteria or requirements that has been
approved by a recognized standard organization. It is important to follow
Standards which are created by various Standard Organization like IEEE ,
ISO , ANSI etc.
 Types of Standards :
 De Facto Standard
 De Jure Standard
 Standards typically address both, how the devices connect in a network
(such as the type of cabling that can be used) and how the devices
communicate ( such as communication protocols that can be used)
 Communication protocols and network
standards:
 De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By
Convention”.
These are the standards that have not been approved by any Organization , but have been
adopted as Standards because of it’s widespread use. Also , sometimes these standards are
often established by Manufacturers.
 For example : Apple and Google are two companies which established their own rules on
their products which are different . Also they use some same standard rules for manufacturing
for their products.
 De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By Regulations”
. Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by officially recognized body like
ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These are the standard which are important to follow if it is required
or needed.
 For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP , TCP , IP , UDP
etc. are important to follow the same when we needed them.
TCP/ IP and other Communication
protocols:
 Most widely used protocol for transferring data over the internet and
actually consists of two protocols: TCP (Transmission control protocol),
which is responsible for the delivery of data, and IP (Internet Protocol),
which provides address and routing information.
 TCP/IP uses packet switching to transmit data; when the packets reach
their destination, they are reassembled in the proper order.
 Support for TCP/IP is built into operating system.
 IP addresses are commonly used to identify the various devices on
computer network.
 The first widely used version of IP was Internet Protocol Version 4
(IPv4), which uses 32-bit addresses and allows 232 (4.3 billion) unique
addresses.
TCP/ IP and other Communication
protocols:
 The newer version of IP Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6), which uses
128-bit addresses and allows 2128 unique addresses.
 This provides enough unique addresses so that all smart devices in a
home or business can be accessible on the internet directly via their unique
IP address, instead of being identified by the IP address of the router to
which they are connected, as in IPv4.
 Some other protocols used for specific internet applications are:
• HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (Secure Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol) are protocols used to display web pages.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and SFTP (secure FTP) are protocols used to
transfer files over the internet.
• SMTP ( Simple mail Transfer Protocol) and POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
used to send and receive email over the internet.
Ethernet Standards:
 Most widely used standard for wired network; typically used with
LAN that have a star topology.
 Ethernet was invented in mid 1970s and has continued to evolve
over the years; about every three years the new approved
amendments are incorporated into the existing IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
standard to keep up to date.
 The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an
Ethernet standard known as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard
defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also specifies
how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another.
By adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network
protocols can communicate efficiently.
Ethernet Standards:
STANDARD Maximum Speed

10 BASE-T 10 Mbps

Fast Ethernet (100BASE-T) 100 Mbps

Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-T) 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps)

10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GBASE-T) 10 Gbps

40 Gigabit Ethernet 40 Gbps

100 Gigabit Ethernet 100 Gbps

400 Gigabit Ethernet 400 Gbps (under consideration for development)

Terabit Ethernet 1000 Gbps (1 Tbps) (under consideration for

development)
Ethernet Standards:

 Devices connected to an Ethernet network need to have an Ethernet

port either built in or added using an expansion card.
 New Ethernet development is Power over Ethernet (PoE) that
pass electric power along with data on twisted-pair Ethernet cabling.
This allows a single cable to provide both data connection and
electric power to devices such as wireless access points (WAPs).
 POE devices are not plugged into an electrical outlet, as long as
they are connected to an Ethernet port that supports POE.
Power line and G.hn:
 Power line ( also called power line communications or PLC)
networking allows data to be transmitted over existing electrical
wiring.
 For example: Broad Band over power line (BPL), which can deliver
broadband internet to home and businesses via the existing outdoor
power lines.
 Currently available only in very limited areas in the united states.
 Power line alternative to the Ethernet standard for wired home
networks is the Home Plug Power line Standard, which allows
computers to be networked over existing power lines within a home
using conventional electrical outlets.
Wi-Fi (802.11):
 Most common networking standards used with wireless LANs is
Wi-Fi.
 Wi-Fi (sometimes called wireless Ethernet because it is designed to
easily connect to a wired Ethernet network) is the current standard
for wireless networks in the home or office, as well as for public Wi-
Fi hotspots.
 Wi-Fi capabilities are also becoming increasingly integrated into
everyday products, such as printers, digital cameras, portable digital
media players, external hard drives, gaming console, home audio
systems, televisions, home appliances etc.
Wi-Fi (802.11):
 The speed of a Wi-Fi network and the area it can cover depends on
a variety of factors, including the wifi standard and hardware being
used, the number of solid objects (such as walls, trees or buildings)
between the access point and the computer or other devices being
used.
 Wi-Fi is designed for medium range data transfer typically between
100 and 300 indoors and 300 to 900 feet outdoors.
 The distance of Wi-Fi network can be extended using additional
antennas and other hardware designed for this purpose.
Wi-Max (802.16):
 Wi-Max, in full worldwide interoperability for microwave
access, communication technology for wirelessly delivering high-
speed Internet service to large geographical areas typically MAN.
 Wi-Max operates over radio waves on a tower-receiver model.
 A single Wi-Max tower can provide coverage over about 8,000
square km (3,000 square miles) and also connect to other towers via
a line-of-sight microwave link to broaden coverage further.
 A roof-mounted antenna dish can receive information at the fastest
data-transfer rates, or an internal receiver chip in a personal
computer, mobile telephone, or other device can communicate
without a line of sight at lower speeds.
Cellular Standards:
 Cellular standards fulfill the demand for mobile Internet, mobile
multimedia delivery, and other relatively recent mobile trends.
 1G (first generation) cell phones were analog and designed for
voice data only.
 2G has been established in 1991 and is the first digital standard. It
delivered more reliable and secure communication. It supported
both data and voice, and were faster than earlier cell phones.
 The common 2G wireless standards included CDMA (Code
division multiple access) and GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) .
Cellular Standards:
 3G – Introducing mobile multimedia capabilities
 3G was introduced in 2003.
 At its core network it used a new architecture called “Universal
Mobile Telecommunications System” (UMTS).
 Its main advancement to its predecessor 2G was a significantly
higher bandwidth. This made 3G the first mobile “multi-media
standard”. For the first time, video streams could be transmitted via
mobile cellular networks.
 In 2006 3G was updated to 3.5G by introducing the High-Speed
Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) communication protocol further
increasing the data bandwidth of 3G up to 42 Mbps.
Cellular Standards:
 4G – High speed and ubiquitous computing
 The fourth Generation 4G was introduced in 2012.
 Its main purpose is to deliver high speed communication with
enhanced security to enable high definition mobile TV, video
conferencing with bandwidths up to 150 Mbps.
Cellular Standards:
 5G – The future standard
 5G is the latest standard in cellular communication. Its worldwide
deployment has just begun. It is estimated that by 2023 up to 32
percent of North America mobile connections will work on a 5G
network. With bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps 5G is designed to enable
high speed communication.
 For the time being 5G is not designed to replace its predecessor 4G.
The parallel operation of both technologies will enable larger
capacities and faster network speeds to be served in the future.
Bluetooth and other Short-Range
Wireless Standards:
 Bluetooth is a WPAN (Wireless Personal Area
Network) standard that enables devices within a range of 10
meters, approximately 33 feet or less, to communicate with each
other.
 It is designed to replace cables between devices.
 Bluetooth devices automatically recognized by their software (using
their unique identification numbers) and network with each other
(establish a link) when they get within transmission range.
 Bluetooth works using radio signals in the frequency band of 2.4
GHz, the same as some Wi-Fi devices and it support transfer upto 26
Mbps.
 Network Hardware:
 Regardless of the wiring and topology used, each computer on the
network needs a hardware component to control the flow of data.
 The device that performs this function is Network Interface Card
(NIC).
 Also known as Network Adapter Card or Network Card.
 This printed circuit board is attached into Expansion Slot on
motherboard and provides a port where network cable is attached.

Expansion Slots
Network Interface Card:
 Network Linking Devices/ Communication
devices:
 Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Gateway
 Bridge
 Hub:

 Hub is a communication device, mostly used in LAN network.

 It is considered as non-intelligent because it broadcasts the packets it
receive to all nodes attached to its ports.
 Switch:

 Switch is most popular communication device, suitable for LAN

network.
 It has different ports that are used to connect devices in a network.
 It is considered as intelligent because it receives & inspects the
packets and forward it to correct destination.
 Also known as switching hub.
 Router:
 Router is a device that is used to connect two or more similar or
dissimilar networks.
 Router stores the routing information of each computer on the
connected networks.
 When a router receives a data packet, it looks the address attached
with data packet, use the routing information to transfer data along
the most efficient pathway.
 Gateway:
 Gateway is a device that is used to connect two or more dissimilar
networks.
 Different networks may have different types of data and of different
formats. Gateway receives data packet from one type of network. It
reads the address of the computer where data packet is to be sent.
 It converts the data packet into format that destination computer can
understand.
 Bridge:
 Bridge is a device that is used to connect two LAN’s or two
segments of the same LAN.
 Traditional device, now its features are integrated into advanced
devices.
Data Communication over Standard
Telephone lines:
 Telephone network use circuit switching.
 The telephone network had its beginning in late 1800s. The entire
network which was referred to as the plain old telephone system
(POTS), was originally an analog system using analog signals to
transmits voice.
 Standard Telephone lines transmits data much more slowly than
network media.
 Telephone companies are now installing digital telephone lines,
which are dedicated to transmit data in digital format.
 Cont.

 Digital Telephone lines transmits data at much higher speed than

standard analog telephone lines.
 Often data travels across analog lines and digital lines. In such
cases, data need to be converted from one format to another multiple
times before reaching its destination.
 Devices such as Modems make phone lines practical for data
transmission over long distance.
 Modem
 A modem is short form of Modulator/Demodulator.
 Modem is a hardware component/device which can connects
computer and other devices such as router and switch to internet.
Modems converts or modulates the analog signals coming from
telephone wire into digital form i.e. in form of 0 s and 1 s.
 Data transmission rate is measured bps (bits per second).
 Cont.
 As PCs transmits and receives data in digital format, a modem is
needed to convert digital data to analog format for transmission over
telephone lines. (MODULATION).
 When receiving data from other computer, the modem converts it
from analog format to digital format. (DEMODULATION).
 Wireless Access point
 Wireless Access point (WAP) or simply Access Point (AP) is a
wireless communication device used to create a Wireless local
area network.
 Access point or WAP plugs into hub or switch that joins the
wired and wireless network using wireless technologies such as
Wi-Fi.
 WAP can serve multiple users within a range of network.
 Some WAP come with built in Routers and Switches, so that you
don’t need to buy multiple devices.
 Cont.
 Devices that are participating in a wireless network for data
communication must support the wireless LAN protocol, called
Wi-Fi.
 Today many computers come fully equipped with integrated or
built-in Wi-Fi.
 Wireless Adapter
 A wireless adapter is a hardware device that is attached to a
computer or laptop and allows it to connect to
a wireless network. Typically, they come in the form of a
USB dongle device that you input into your computer.
Repeaters, Range Extenders, and Antennas
 A Repeater or extender is used to extend the coverage area of
your network.
 Repeaters are available for both wired and wireless networks.
 Repeaters for wireless network are often called Range
Extenders.
 It works by receiving your existing Wi-Fi signal, amplifying it
and then transmitting the boosted signal.
 With a Wi-Fi repeater you can effectively double the coverage
area of your Wi-Fi network - reaching far corners of your home
or office, different floors, or even extend coverage to your yard.
Repeaters, Range Extenders, and Antennas
 Another alternative for increasing the range of Wi-Fi network is
Antennas.
 Antennas are classified as directional antennas ( that
concentrate the signal in a particular area) or Omnidirectional
antennas ( that are equally effective in all directions).
 Multiplexers
 High speed communication lines are expensive.
 A multiplexer is a device that takes multiple signals and
forwards the selected input into a single communication
medium.
 These devices are used to increase the amount of data that can
be transmitted over a network.
 A network multiplexer is used with a variety of signal types like
digital, video, analog, and optical.
 When the combined signals reaches its destination, the
individual messages are separated from one another.
 Multiplexing is frequently used with fiber optic cables and
other high capacity media to increase data throughput.
Thank You!