Errors
Errors
Errors
Significant figures in a measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we have confidence.
Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is its accuracy and vice versa.
1. Rules to find out the number of significant figures :
I Rule : All the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF.
II Rule: All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5 SF.
III Rule : All the zeros to the left of first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SF.
IV Rule : If the number is less than 1, zeros on the right of the decimal point but to the left of the first non-zero
digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4 SF.
V Rule : The trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit) in a number with a decimal point are
significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF.
VI Rule : The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant e.g. 010100 has 3 SF. But
if the number comes from some actual measurement then the trailing zeros become significant. e.g.
m = 100 kg has 3 SF.
VII Rule : When the number is expressed in exponential form, the exponential term does not affect the
number of S.F. For example in x = 12.3 = 1.23 × 101 = .123 × 102 = 0.0123 × 103
= 123 × 10 – 1 each term has 3 SF only.
I Rule : In addition or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to the number of
decimal places of that term in the operation which contain lesser number of decimal places. e.g.
12.587 – 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (Q second term contain lesser i.e. one decimal place)
II Rule: In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is same as the smallest number of
SF in any of the factors. e.g. 5.0 × 0.125 = 0.625 = 0.62
Ex. Write down the number of significant figures in the following.
(a) 165 3SF (following rule I)
(b) 2.05 3 SF (following rules I & II)
(c) 34.000 m 5 SF (following rules I & V)
(d) 0.005 1 SF (following rules I & IV)
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(e) 0.02340 N m–1 4 SF (following rules I, IV & V)
(f) 26900 3 SF (see rule VI)
(g) 26900 kg 5 SF (see rule VI)
Ex. The length, breadth and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume
of the sheet to correct number of significant figures.
Sol. length (l) = 4.234 m breadth (b) = 1.005 m
thickness (t) = 2.01 cm = 2.01 × 10–2 m
Therefore area of the sheet = 2 ( l × b + b × t + t × l )
= 2 ( 4.234 × 1.005 + 1.005 × 0.0201 + 0.0201 × 4.234) m2
= 2 ( 4.3604739) m2 = 8.720978 m2
Since area can contain a maxm of 3 SF (Rule II of article 4.2) therefore, rounding off, we get
Area = 8.72 m2
Like wise volume = l × b × t
= 4.234 × 1.005 × 0.0201 m3 = 0.0855289 m3
Since volume can contain 3 SF, therefore, rounding off, we get
Volume = 0.0855 m3
Q. Write the following in scientific notation :
(a) 3256 g (b) .0010 g (c) 50000 g (5 SF) (d) 0.3204
Q. Give the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.165 (b) 4.0026 (c) 0.0256 (d) 165
(e) 0.050 (f) 2.653 × 104 (g) 6.02 × 1023 (h) 0.0006032
Q. Calculate area enclosed by a circle of diameter 1.06 m to correct number of significant figures.
Q. Subtract 2.5 × 104 from 3.9 × 105 and give the answer to correct number of significant figures.
Q. The mass of a box measured by a grocer's balance is 2.3 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to
the box. What is (a) total mass of the box (b) the difference in masses of gold pieces to correct significant figures.
ROUNDING OFF
To represent the result of any computation containing more than one uncertain digit, it is rounded off to appropriate
number of significant figures.
Rules for rounding off the numbers :
I Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by one. e.g. 6.87» 6.9
II Rule: If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, than the preceding digit is unaffected and is left unchanged.
e.g. 3.94 » 3.9
III Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is 5 then the preceding digit is increased by one if it is odd and is left
unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35 » 14.4 and 14.45 » 14.4
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Ex. The following values can be rounded off to four significant figures as follows :
(a) 36.879 »36.88 ( Q 9 > 5 \7 is increased by one i.e.I Rule)
(b) 1.0084 »1.008 ( Q 4 < 5 \8 is left unchanged i.e. II Rule)
(c) 11.115 »11.12 ( Q last 1 is odd it is increased by one i.e.III Rule)
(d) 11.1250 »11.12 ( Q 2 is even it is left unchanged i.e. III Rule)
(e) 11.1251 »11.13 ( Q 51 > 50 \ 2 is incresed by one i.e. I Rule)
Q. Round off the following numbers as indicated:
(a) 25.653 to 3 digits (b) 4.996 × 105 to 3 digits (c) 0.6995 to 1digit (d) 3.350 to 2 digits
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(e) 0.03927 kg to 3 digits (f) 4.085 × 10 s to 3 digits
Ans. (a) 25.7 (b) 5.00 × 105 (c) 0.7 (d) 3.4 (e) 0.0393 kg (f) 4.08 × 108 s
ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent that quantity. This power is determined after
rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding off, the last digit is simply ignored if it is less than 5 and,
is increased by one if it is 5 or more than 5.
Ex. Order of magnitude of the following values can be determined as follows :
(a) 49 = 4.9 × 101 » 101
\ Order of magnitude = 1
(b) 51 = 5.1 × 101 » 102
\ Order of magnitude = 2
\ Order of magnitude = –2
\ Order of magnitude = –1
\ Order of magnitude = –1
Q. Give the order of the following :
(a) 1
(b) 1000
(c) 499
(d) 500
(e) 501
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(f) 1 AU (1.496 × 1011 m)
(g) 1 Å (10–10 m)
(h) Speed of light ( 3.00 × 108 m/s)
(i) Gravitational constant ( 6.67 × 10–11 N – m2/kg2)
(j) Avogadro constant (6.02 × 1023 mol –1 )
(k) Planck's constant (6.63 × 10–34 J-s)
(l) Charge on electron (1.60 × 10 –19 C)
(m) Radius of H– atom (5.29 × 10 –11 m)
(n) Atmospheric pressure (1.01 × 105 Pa)
(o) Mass of earth (5.98 × 1024 kg)
(p) Mean radius of earth (6.37 × 106 m)
1
Note :- If the number of observations is made n times then the random error reduces to ( ) times.
n
Example :- If the random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is 'x' then the random error in the arithmetic mean
x
of 500 observations will be
5
Gross Errors : Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in reading the instruments or calculating and
recording the measurement results.
For example :-
(i) Reading instrument without proper initial settings.
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(ii) Taking the observations wrongly without taking necessary precautions.
(iii) Exhibiting mistakes in recording the observations.
(iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations.
These errors can be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertness of the observer.
REPRESENTATION OF ERRORS
Errors can be expressed in the following ways :-
n
a1 a2 a 3 ..............an 1
am =
n
=
n a
i 1
i .........(1)
If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (am) can be taken as the true value. Then the absolute
errors in the individual measured values are –
Da1 = am – a1
Da2 = am – a2
......................
......................
Dan = am – an
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error (Da)m or a of the value of
the physical quantity a
n
| a1 ||a2 |...........|an | 1
(Da)m =
n
=
n |a |
i 1
i .........(2)
So if the measured value of a quantity be 'a' and the error in measurement be Da, then the true value (at) can be written as
at = a Da .........(3)
When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error,
percentage error = relative error × 100
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If X = A + B or X = A – B and if DA and DB represent the absolute errors in A and B respectively, then the maximum
absolute error in X = DX = DA + DB and
X
Maximum percentage error = 100 .........(6)
X
The result will be written as X DX (in terms of absolute error)
X
or X 100 % (in terms of percentage error)
X
Rule II : The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or division of quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional or relative errors in the individual quantities.
If X = A × B or X = A/B
X A B
then ( ) .........(7)
X A B
X A
If X = An then n( ) .........(8)
X A
X A B C
If X = ApBq Cr then [p( ) q( ) r( )]
X A B C
A p Bq X A B C
If X = then [p( ) q( ) r( )]
Cr X A B C
l Systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and are produced due to improper
conditions or procedures that are consistent in action whereas random errors are accidental and their magnitude and
sign cannot be predicted from the knowledge of the measuring system and conditions of measurement.
Systematic errors can therefore be minimised by improving experimental techniques, selecting better instruments and
improving personal skills whereas random errors can be minimised by repeating the observation several times.
l Mean absolute error has the units and dimensions of the quantity itself whereas fractional or relative error is unitless
and dimensionless.
l Absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in other cases.
Ex. Following observations were taken with a vernier callipers while measuring the length of a cylinder.
3.29 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.31 cm,
3.28 cm, 3.27 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.30 cm
Then find
(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder. (b) Absolute error in each observation.
(c) Mean absolute error (d) Relative error (e) Percentage error
Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error.
Sol. (a) Most accurate length of the cylinder will be the mean length
3.29 3.28 3.29 3.31 3.28 3.27 3.29 3.30
= 3.28875 cm or = 3.29 cm
8
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(b) Absolute error in the first reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the second reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm
Absolute error in the third reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the forth reading = 3.39 – 3.31 = –0.02 cm
Absolute error in the fifth reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm
Absolute error in the sixth reading = 3.29 – 3.27 = 0.02 cm
Absolute error in the seventh reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the last reading = 3.29 – 3.30 = –0.01 cm
0.01
(d) Relative error in length = = 0.0030395 = 0.003
3.29
(e) Percentage error = × 100 = 0.003 × 100 = 0.3%
\ rise in temperature = (37.7 0.5)°C
1.48 1.48
or DA = A= 19.8 = 148
. \ Area = (19.38 1.48) sq. cm
19.38 19.38
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s 13.8
velocity v = = 3.45 ms–1 = 3.5 ms–1
t 4.0
v
percentage error in velocity = × 100 = 0.0895 × 100 = 8.95% = 9%
v
Ex. A thin copper wire of length L increase in length by 2% when heated from T1 to T2. If a copper cube having side 10
L is heated from T1 to T2 what will be the percentage change in
(i) area of one face of the cube and.
(ii) volume of the cube.
Sol. (i) Area A = 10 L × 10 L = 100 L2.
A L
Percentage change in area = × 100 = 2 × × 100 = 2 × 2% = 4%
A L
A 100 L L L
( 2 02 2 )
A 100 L L L
V L
percentage change in volume = × 100 = 3 = 3 × 2% = 6%
V L
Conclusion :- The maximum percentage change will be observed in volume, lesser in area and the least (minimum)
change will be observed in length or radius.
Q. Two rods have lengths measured as (1.8 0.2)m and (2.3 0.1)m. Calculate their combined length with error limits.
Ans. (4.1 0.3) m
Q. The original length of wire is (153.7 0.6) cm . It is stretched to (155.3 0.2) cm. Calculate the elongation in the wire
with error limits. Ans. (1.6 0.8) cm
Q. In an experiment, values of two resistances are measured to be r 1 = (5.0 0.2) ohm and
r2 = (10.0 0.1) ohm. Find the values of total resistance in (i) series and (ii) parallel with limits of percentage error..
Ans. Rs = 15 ohm 2% ; Rp = 3.3 ohm 7%
Q. The radius of a sphere is measured to be (2.1 0.5) cm. Calculate its surface area with absolute error limits.
Ans. (55.4 26.4) cm2
Q. A physical quantity x is calculated from the relation x = a3b2/ cd . Calculate percentage error in x, if a, b, c and d are
measured respectively with an error of 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%.Ans. 12%
LEAST COUNT
The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with an instrument is called the least count
(L. C.) of the measuring instrument.
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Least Count of vernier callipers :
Suppose the size of one main scale division
(M.S.D.) is M units and that of one vernier
scale division (V. S. D.) is V units. Also let
the length of 'a' main scale divisions is equal
to the length of 'b' vernier scale divisions. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 14 15
a
aM = bV Þ V M
b
a ba
\ M – V = M – M or M – V = ( )M
b b
ba
L.C. M V M
b
Ex. One cm on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divisions of vernier scale coincide with
8 small divisions of the main scale. What will be the least count of callipers ?
8 2
Sol. 20 div. of vernier scale = 8 div. of main scale Þ 1 V. S .D. = ( ) M. S. D. = ( ) M. S. D.
20 5
2 2
Least count = 1 M. S. D. – 1 V. S . D. = 1 M. S. D. – ( ) M. S. D. = (1 ) M. S. D.
5 5
3 3 1
= M .S .D. = × 0.1 cm = 0.06 cm (Q 1 M. S. D. = cm = 0.1 cm)
5 5 10
ba 20 8 1 3
Note : for objective questions L. C. = M – V = ( )M = ( )( ) cm = cm = 0.06 cm
b 20 10 50
5
0
10
5
10
Linear (Pitch)
Scale Thimble
Sleeve
Screw
Pitch
Least Count =
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
where pitch is defined as the distance moved by the screw head when the circular scale is given one complete rotation.
i.e.
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Distance moved by the screw on the linear scale
Pitch =
No.of full rotations given
Note : With the decrease in the least count of the measuring instrument, the accuracy of the measurement increases and
the error in the measurement decreases.
Ex. A spherometer has 100 equal divisions marked along the periphery of its disc, and one full rotation of the disc advances on
the main scale by 0.01 cm. Find the least count of the system.
Sol. Given Pitch = 0.01 cm
Pitch 0.01
\ Least count = = cm = 10–4 cm.
Total no. of divisions on the the circular scale 100
Ex. The nth division of main scale coincides with (n + 1)th division of vernier scale. Given one main scale division is equal to
'a' units. Find the least count of the vernier.
n
\ 1 vernier division = main scale division
n 1
Least count = 1 M. S. D. – 1V. S. D.
n 1 a
= (1 ) M. S. D. = ( ) M. S. D. =
n 1 n 1 n 1
1
Ex. The least count of a stop watch is second. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to be 25 seconds.
5
How much will be the percentage error in the measurement of time ?
1
Sol. Error in measuring 25 sec.= sec. = 0.2 sec.
5
0.2
\ percentage error = 100 = 0.8%
25
Note : The final absolute error in this type of questions is taken to be equal to the least count of the measuring
instrument.
Q. One centimetre on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divisions of vernier scale
coincide with 19 small divisions of the main scale then what will be the least count of the callipers.
Ans. 0.005 cm
Q. If the number of divisions on the circular scale is 100 and number of full rotations given to screw is 8 and distance moved
by the screw is 4 mm, then what will be least count of the screw gauge.
Ans. 0.005 mm
Q. A spherometer has 250 equal divisions marked along the periphery of its disc, and one full rotation of the disc advances
on the main scale by 0.0625 cm. What is the least count of the spherometer.
Ans. 2.5 × 10–4 cm
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PREVIOUS EXAMS QUESTIONS EXERCISE–I
1. The pressure on a square plate is measured by 4. If the error in the measurement of radius of a sphere is
measuring the force on the plate and the length of the 2 % then the error in the determination of volume of the
sides of the plate. If the maximum error in the sphere will be :- [AIPMT 2008]
measurement of force and length are respectively 4%
(1) 8% (2) 2 %
and 2%, the maximum error in the measurement of
pressure is – (3) 4 % (4) 6%
(1) 1 (2) 2
(3) 3 (4) 4
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BRAIN TEASERS EXERCISE - II
respectively. The most probable error in its volume will
1. A quantity is represented by X = Ma Lb T c . The be
percentage error in measurement of M, L and T are a%,
(1) 0.03 cm3 (2) 0.111 cm3
b % and g % respectively. The percentage error in X
would be (3) 0.012 cm3 (4) None of these
(1) (a a + bb + gc) % (2) (aa – bb + gc) % 9. If error in measuring diameter of a circle is 4 %, the
(3) (a a – bb– gc) % (4) None of these error in circumference of the circle would be :-
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scale divisions are of (1) 0.01 cm (2) 0.02 cm
(1) 0.5 mm (2) 1 mm (3) 0.05 cm (4) 0.005 cm
(3) 2 mm (4) 1/4 mm 18. While measuring acceleration due to gravity by a simple
pendulum a student makes a positive error of 1% in the
15. The heat generated in a circuit is dependent upon the
length of the pendulum and a negative error of 3% in
resistance, current and time for which the current is
the value of the time period. His percentage error in the
flown. If the error in measuring the above are as 1%,
measurement of the value of g will be -
2% and 1% the maximum error in measuring heat will be
(1) 2 % (2) 4 %
(1) 2% (2) 3% (3) 7 % (4) 10 %
(3) 6% (4) 1% 19. A student measured the diameter of a wire using a screw
gauge with least count 0.001 cm and listed the
16. The percentage errors in the measurement of mass and
measurements. The correct measurement is –
speed are 2% and 3% respectively. How much will be
the maximum error in the estimate of kinetic energy (1) 5.3 cm (2) 5.32 cm
obtained by measuring mass and speed ? (3) 5.320 cm (4) 5.3200 cm
(1) 11 % (2) 8 %
(3) 5 % (4) 1 %
17. One centimetre on the main scale of vernier callipers is
divided into ten equal parts. If 10 divisions of vernier
scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale,
the least count of the callipers is