UNIT – 2

LEVELLING AND APPLICATIONS

Leveling is a branch of surveying in which the object the is:
(i) To find the elevation of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum
(ii) To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to given

or assumed datum

Uses of Levelling
(i) To determine or to set the plinth level of a building.
(ii) To decide or set the road, railway, canal or sewage line alignment.
(iii) To determine or to set various levels of dams, towers, etc.
(iv) To determine the capacity of a reservoir.
Terms Used in Levelling
Level Surface
A surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called a level surface and the line drawn
on the level surface is known as a level line. Hence all points lying on a level surface are
equidistant from the centre of the earth. Figure 3.1 shows a typical level surface

LEVEL SURFACE
Horizontal Surface
A surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called horizontal surface at that point.
Hence a horizontal line is at right angles to the plumb line at that point.
Vertical Line
A vertical line at a point is the line connecting the point to the centre of the earth. It is the plumb
line at that point. Vertical and horizontal lines at a point are at right angles to each other.
Datum
The level of a point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points or planes are
calculated, is called a datum or datum surface.
Mean Sea Level (MSL)
MSL is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any particular place MSL is
established by finding the mean sea level (free of tides) after averaging tide heights over a long
period of at least 19 years. In India MSL used is that established at Karachi, presently, in
Pakistan. In all important surveys this is used as datum.
Reduced Levels (RL)
The level of a point taken as height above the datum surface is known as RL of that point.
Benchmarks
A benchmark is a relatively permanent reference point, the elevation of which is known
(assumed or known w.r.t. MSL). It is used as a starting point for levelling or as a point upon
which to close for a check. The following are the different types of benchmarks used in
surveying:
(a) GTS benchmarks
(b) Permanent benchmarks
(c) Arbitrary benchmarks
(d) Temporary benchmarks.
GTS Benchmark:

The long form of GTS benchmark is Great Trigonometrical Survey benchmark. These
benchmarks are established by national agency. In India, the department of Survey of India is
entrusted with such works. GTS benchmarks are established all over the country with highest
precision survey, the datum being mean sea level. A bronze plate provided on the top of a
concrete pedastal with elevation engraved on it serves as benchmark. It is well protected with
masonry structure built around it so that its position is not disturbed by animals or by any
unauthorised person. The position of GTS benchmarks are shown in the topo sheets published.

Permanent Benchmark:

These are the benchmarks established by state government agencies like PWD. They are
established with reference to GTS benchmarks. They are usually on the corner of plinth of
public buildings.

Arbitrary Benchmark:

In many engineering projects the difference in elevations of neighbouring points is more

important than their reduced level with respect to mean sea level. In such cases a relatively
permanent point, like plinth of a building or corner of a culvert, are taken as benchmarks, their
level assumed arbitrarily such as 100.0 m, 300.0 m, etc.

Temporary Benchmark:

This type of benchmark is established at the end of the day‟s work, so that the next day work
may be continued from that point. Such point should be on a permanent object so that next day
it is easily identified.

Methods of Levelling

The following methods are used to determine the difference in elevation of various points:

(i) Barometric levelling

(ii) Hypsometric levelling
(iii) Direct levelling
(iv) Indirect levelling.
Barometric Levelling

This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure depends upon the elevation of
place. Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure and hence elevation is computed.
However it is not accurate method since the atmospheric pressure depends upon season and
temperature also. It may be used in exploratory surveys.

Hypsometric Levelling

This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with the elevation of the
place. Hence the elevation difference between two points may be found by noting the
difference in boiling point of water in the two places. This method is also useful only for
exploratory survey.

Direct Levelling (Sprit Levelling)

It is common form of levelling in all engineering projects. In this method horizontal sight is
taken on a graduated staff and the difference in the elevation of line of sight and ground at
which staff is held are found. Knowing the height of line of sight from the instrument station
the difference in the elevations of instrument station and the ground on which staff is held can
be found.

Indirect Levelling (Trignometric Levelling)

In this method instruments are used to measure the vertical angles. Distance between the
instrument and staff is measured by various methods. Then using trigonometric relations, the
difference in elevation can be computed.

Levelling Instruments

A level is an instrument giving horizontal line of sight and magnifying the reading at a far away
distance. It consists of the following parts:

A telescope to provide a line of sight

A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal and

A levelling head to level the instrument. The following types of levels are available:

(i) Dumpy level (ii) Wye (or, Y) level

Cooke‟s reversible level

Tilting level and (v) Auto level.

Dumpy Level

Fig 2.2 Dumpy level

It is a short and stout instrument with telescope tube rigidly connected to the vertical spindle.
Hence the level tube cannot move in vertical plane. It cannot be removed from its support.
Hence it is named as dumpy level. The telescope rotates in horizontal plane in the socket of
the levelling head. A bubble tube is attached to the top of the telescope. Figure shows a
typical dumpy level.

Telescope is a tube with object glass and eyepiece. Object glass can be adjusted using the
focussing screw before sighting the graduated staff held on the object. Eyepiece can be
adjusted by rotating it to see that parallel is removed and cross hairs appears distinctly.
Eyepiece once adjusted needs no change as long as the same person takes the readings.
Level tube is a glass tube with slightly curved shape provided over the level tube. The tube
is filled with ether or alcohol leaving a little air gap, which takes the shape of a bubble. The
air bubble is always at the highest point.

The level tube is fixed with its axis parallel to telescope tube, so that when bubble is centred,
the telescope is horizontal. The tube is graduated on either side of its centre to estimate how
much the bubble is out of centre. The glass tube is placed inside a brass tube which is open
from top and on lower side it is fixed to telescope tube by means of capston headed nuts.
The bubble tube is adjusted with these nuts, if it is out of order.

Levelling head consists of two parallel plates with three foot screws. The upper plate is
known as tribratch plate and the lower one as the trivet. The lower plate can be screwed on
to the tripod stand. By adjusting the screws the instrument can be levelled to get perfect
horizontal line of sight. Dumpy level is to be fitted to a tripod stand to use it in the field. The
tripod stand consists of three legs connected to a head to which the lower plate of level can
be fitted. The lower sides of the legs are provided with metal shoes to get good grip with
ground.
Wye or Y-Level
In this type of level, the telescope is supported in two Y-shaped supports and can be fixed
with the help of curved clips. Clips can be opened and telescope can be reversed end to end
and fitted. The advantage of this level is some of the errors eliminated, if the readings are
taken in both the direction of telescope.
Cooke’s Reversible Level
In this instrument the telescope is supported by two rigid sockets into which telescope can be
introduced from either end and then screwed. For taking the readings in the reversed position
of telescope, the screw is slackened and then the telescope is taken out and reversed end for
end. Thus it combines the rigidity of dumpy level and reversibility of Y-level.
Tilting Level
In this, telescope can be tilted through about four degrees with the help of a tilting
screw. Hence bubble can be easily centered. But it needs centering of the bubble
before taking every reading. Hence it is useful, if at every setting of the instrument
number of readings to be taken are few.

Auto Level

3 Fig. 2.3 Tilting Level

The auto-level or the automatic-level is a self aligning level. Within a certain range of
tilt automatic levelling is achieved by an inclination compensating device. The
operational comfort, high speed and precision are the advantages of this instrument.
Levelling Staff
Along with a level, a levelling staff is also required for levelling. The levelling staff is
a rectangular rod having graduations. The staff is provided with a metal shoe at its
bottom to resist wear and tear. The foot of the shoe represents zero reading. Levelling
staff may be divided into two groups:
(i) Self reading staff and
(ii) Target staff

Self reading staff

This staff reading is directly read by the instrument man through telescope. In a metric
system staff, one metre length is divided into 200 subdivisions, each of uniform
thickness of 5 mm. All divisions are marked with black in a white background. Metres
and decimetres are written in red colour. The following three types of self reading
staffs are available:
(a) Solid staff: It is a single piece of 3 m.
(b) Folding staff: A staff of two pieces each of 2 m which can be folded one over the other.
(c) Telescopic staff: A staff of 3 pieces with upper one solid and lower two hollow.
The upper part can slide into the central one and the central part can go into the lower
part. Each length can be pulled up and held in position by means of brass spring. The
total length may be 4 m or 5 m
 Target staff
If the sighting distance is more, instrument man finds it difficult to read self reading
staff. In such case a target staff shown in figure may be used. Target staff is similar to
self reading staff, but provided with a movable target. Target is a circular or oval
shape, painted red and white in alternate quadrant. It is fitted with a vernier at the
centre. The instrument man directs the person holding target staff to move the target,
till its centre is in the horizontal line of sight. Then target man reads the target and is
recorded.
The adjustments to be made at every setting of the instrument are called
temporary adjustments. The following three adjustments are required for the
instrument whenever set over a new point before taking a reading:
(i) Setting
(ii) Levelling and
(iii) Elimination of Parallax (Focussing )
Setting up the level
The operation of setting up includes
(a) fixing the instrument on the stand and
(b) levelling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment. To fix the level to the
tripod, the clamp is released, instrument is held in the right hand and is fixed o the
tripod by tuning round the lower part with the left hand. The tripod legs are so
adjusted that the instrument is at the convenient height and the tribarch is
approximately horizontal. Some instruments are provided with a small bubble tube
on the tribarch.
Levelling
The procedure of accurate levelling with three levelling screw is as
given below: Having centered and approximately leveled the instrument, it is accurately
leveled with reference to the plate levels by means of foot-screws so that the vertical axis is
made truly vertical
 Fig.2.6 Level Screw Adjustment

To the level level instrument,

(i) Loosen the clamp and turn the telescope until the bubble axis is parallel to the line joining
any two screws.
(ii) Turn the two screws inward or outward equally and simultaneously till bubble is centred.
(iii) Turn the telescope by 90° so that it lies over the third screw and level the
instrument by operating the third screw.
(iv)Turn back the telescope to its original position and check the bubble. Repeat
steps (ii) to (iv) till bubble is centred for both positions of the telescope.
(v) Rotate the instrument by 180°. Check the levelling. Now rotate the instrument
about the vertical axis through a complete revolution. Each bubble will now remain
central provided the plate levels are in correct adjustment. The vertical axis is thus
made truly vertical.

Elimination of Parallax
Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective is not in the
plane of the cross hairs. Unless parallax is eliminated, accurate sighting is impossible.
Parallax can be eliminated by the following two steps
(i) Focussing the eyepiece: For this, hold a sheet of white paper in front of telescope
and rotate eyepiece in or out till the cross hairs are seen sharp and distinct.
(ii) Focussing the objective: For this telescope is directed towards the staff and
the focussing screw is turned till the reading appears clear and sharp.
 Permanent Adjustments

Fig.2.7 Critical axes of Dumpy Level

The important objective of the permanent adjustment is to establish the fixed

relationship between the fundamental lines of the levelling instrument. The fundamental lines
of a level are as follows:
1. Axis of the bubble tube
2. Vertical axis
3. Axis of the telescope
4. Line of collimation

Relationship between the Fundamental Lines

1. The line of collimation should be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.
2. The axis of the telescope and line of collimation should coincide.
3. The bubble axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

Permanent Adjustment of a Dumpy Level

The following permanent adjustments are made for a dumpy level.
l. To make the line of collimation parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.
2. To make the axis of the bubble tube perpendicular to the vertical axis of the level.
Adjustment Methods
(a) Line of Sight (or line of collimation) perpendicular to the vertical axis. (TWO-PEG
TEST)
(i) Choose two suitable points P and Q about 50 m and about P and Q fix an intermediate point
R as shown in figure

(ii) Fix the instrument at 'R' and observe the staff reading on 'P' and 'Q'. Determine the level
difference between 'P' and 'Q'. (The difference will be correct, even if the line of sight is not
parallel to the axis of the bubble tube, as the error resulting from the line of sight being
inclined is directly proportional to the line of sight).
(iii) Choose an another point 'S' in the line P and Q about 20 m from Q.
(iv) Fix the instrument at 'S' and level it.
(v) Observe the staff readings on 'P' and 'Q'.
(vi) Determine the difference in level between 'P' and 'Q'. If the difference calculated is same
with the previous difference in level, then the adjustment is correct.
(vii) If the differences differ, then the following adjustment is to be done.

Adjustment

1. Workout the following calculations.

Let

2. Correct the staff reading at 'P'

3. Take the staff reading at 'P' from 'S'
4. Diaphragm Capstan Screws are moved to get the same staff reading as calculated above.

(b)Vertical axis perpendicular to the axis of plate bubble tube

(i) Fix the instrument and do the temporary adjustments.
(ii) Rotate the telescope through 180°. (The ends of the telescope reversed).
(iii) If the bubble remains central, the level is in perfect adjustment.
(iv) If the bubble runs out of the centre, count the number of graduation the bubble tube
by which the bubble has run out of its central position.

Adjustment
1. Bring the half way back to a central position, by adjusting the two screws.
2 Bring the bubble to centre of its run by using capstan screw provide one of the ends of the
bubble tube. (This makes the axis of the but tube truly horizontal).

Comparison between the rise and fall and line of collimation methods in reducing
levelling
Line of collimation Rise and fall
1) In this method, the height of instrument Here the height of instrument is not at all
is calculated for each. Setting of the calculated but the difference of level
instrument by adding back sight to the between consecutive points is found by
elevation of B.M comparing the staff readings on the two
point for same setting of instrument.
2) It involves a few calculations hence It involves a more calculations hence slow.
rapid.
3) There is no check on the R.L. of There is no check on the R.L. every of
intermediate point. intermediate point.
4) Two checks are there on the accuracy of Three checks are there on the accuracy of
R.L calculation. R.L calculation.
5) This method is more suitable for This method fairly suitable for longitudinal
longitudinal levelling. levelling.
6) This is not fast for fly levelling This method is more suitable for fly
levelling.
7) Errors committed in the R.L calculation Errors committed if any can be detected as
in the intermediate points cannot be all the R.L.S of points are correlated.
detected.