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INSTITUTE OF WELDING & TESTING TECHNOLOGY
WELCOME
YOU
FOR THE TOPIC:
By: Narendra H. Singh

JOINING THE TWO PLATES IN DISSIMILAR WAYS:
Mechanical
Adhesive
Brazing/Soldering
Welding
ERW Fusion
Welder by
Pressure
Induction Conduction
Pressure Pressure
Welder Welder
Spot Weldinger Flash Butt (Percussion)

Roller Seam CD Stud
Welder Welder
Welder
Projection Spot Upset Butt Welder Arc Stud

Welder Welder
SPOT WELD BY ERW VERSUS OTHER WELDING PROCESSES:
d
S S
Arc Spot Weld
Resistance Spot Welds
GTAW/TIG MIG/MAG Spot Power Beam Spot

Spot
ERW Spot Weld
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING (ERW)

refers to a group of processes such as spot ,
Projection and seam welding that produce
localized coalescence at faying surfaces, where
the heat is generated by the resistance
[I 2 RT/IVT] of electric to form weld nuggets
combined together with the time and the
Some factors influencing the required heat are

the proportions of the work-piece, the metal
coating or the lack of coating, the electrode
materials, electrode geometry, electrode pressing
force, electrical current and length of the weld
duration. Sm all po o ls o f m o lt en m et a l a re
formed at the point of the m ost electrical
In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and

cause least pollution; however, their applications are
reserved for sheet metals and the equipment cost may be
huge (although under the production the same is cost
effective). Light fabrication from the pressed sheet parts
such as motor vehicle bodies, domestic washing machines,
refrigerator cabinets, wire-interlocks, transformer-fins,
rail coach roof, barrels, similar or dissimilar-studs, ERW-
When the high shear strength is needed, spot welding is used in preference over an
expensive and laborious mechanical fastening method like riveting. While the shear
strength of each weld is high, the fact that the weld spots do not form a continuous
seam means that the overall strength is significantly lower than other continuous
welding methods, limiting the usefulness of this process.
ERW processes generally do not require manual-skill & consumables; and simple to
mechanize, automate or robotize. Consistent quality, high productivity, efficient
energy utilization, limited work piece deformations are the built in features of ERW
welding processes.
They are applied worldwide for joining commonly used ferrous & non-ferrous metals
but it is not trouble-free to weld copper. Welding power sources & equipments are
sized to the specific thickness and material being welded together. The thickness is
Influence of Good Sufficient
MATERIALS WELD- Alloying Weld- Weld-
ABILITY elements
ability ability
(Steel)
Aluminum Satisfactory
Maximum Alloy
Iron Very good Content%
Gold Satisfactory C 0.25 0.40
Classification of welding method for

the conductive resistance pressure
Cobalt Very good C + Cr 0.35 1.60
Copper Poor C + Mo 0.50 0.70
Magnesium Good
C+V 0.40 0.60
Molybdenum Satisfactory
Ref: DIN-1910
C + Mn 1.40 1.60
Nickel Very good
welding.
C + Ni 3.00 4.00
Platinum Very good
Silver Very good Si 0.40 1.00
Tantalum Very good Cu 0.60 0.60

Titanium Very good P+S 0.10 0.10
Tungsten Satisfactory
Resistance & Pressure Effect:
R1&R5 Resistance between tip and sheet; It is desirable to have:
R2 & R4 Sheet individual resistance; •R1,R2,R4,R5 low
R3 Surface contact resistance; •R3 high
R1
H = 0.24 x I2 x R x T.
R2 H = Heat input in Calories,

I2 = Current in amperes,
R3 R = Resistance of the work in ohms,
R4 T = Time the current flow in cycles

(50 CYCLES / SECOND)
R5
SEQUENCE OF AN ERW SPOT WELDING PROCESS:
1- Lowering of the top electrode,

2-Application of the adjusted electrode force Set-up time,
sequence,
3-Switching-on of the adjusted welding current for the period
of the welding time. Formation of the weld nugget in the
joining zone of both work-pieces.
4- Maintaining the electrode force for the period of the set
post-weld holding time.
5- Switching-off the force generating system and lifting the
electrodes off the work-piece.
1 . SQUEEZE TIME - VITAL FOR ELECTRODE TO BE CLOSE ON TO THE METAL

AND APPLY THE RIGHT PRESSURE; WHICH VARIES WITH THE GAP BETWEEN
THE ELECTRODES.
2. UP SLOPE TIME – ESSENTIAL FOR THE CURRENT TO REACH FROM ZERO

THE PEAK.
3. WELD TIME - NECESSARY FOR PEAK CURRENT TO FLOW & HEAT.
4. DOWN SLOPE TIME – REQUIRES FOR THE CURRENT TO CUT OFF FROM
PEAK TO ZERO.
Continued …
5. HOLD TIME - TAKEN BY THE ELECTRODES TO HOLD THE SHEETS

TOGETHER AFTER THE CURRENT FLOW STOPS. PRESSURE STILL APPLIED TO
ALLOW THE MOLTEN METAL TO SOLIDIFY.
6. OFF TIME - IS THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE END OF ONE SPOT CYCLE TO
START ANOTHER SPOT CYCLE.
Relation between Current and time:
A - WILL HAVE:
§ LESS DISTORTION;
Current • LESS OXIDATION;
A • GOOD WELDABILITY;
C
Time A: Strong current and short time
C: Small Current and long time
B: Medium current and medium time
EFFECT OF PRESSURE:
*Brings sheet into intimate contact thus effect contact resistance;
*Ensures completion of electric circuit;
*Ensures heat dissipation in weld zone and prevents surface fusion;
*If low: Surface burning and pitting of electrode;
*If High: More current is required;
*Measure the pressure between electrodes with calibrated pressure
gauge only.
PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION OF ELECTRODES:
REQUIREMENT OF ELECTRODES
1. ELECTRODES CENTERED AND FIXED SECURELY TO ELECTRODES HOLDER;
2. FREE MOVEMENT ALLOWING FOR CONSISTENT PRESSURE REPEATABIL-
ITY;
3. QUICK RESPONSE OF THE ELECTRODE ARM ALLOWS FOR PRESSURE TO BE
MAINTAINED DURING WELDING;
4. ELECTRODES MUST HAVE LOW NATURAL RESISTANCE, HIGH HEAT
CONDUCTIVITY AND MAINTAINED HARDNESS EVEN AT HIGH TEMPERA-
TURES;
5. HIGH CONDUCTIVITY ELECTRODES ARE USED FOR LOW CONDUCTIVE
MATERIALS AND LOW CONDUCTIVE ELECTRODES BEING USED FOR HIGH
CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL.
FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRODES:
1. SUPPLY SUFFICIENT WELDING CURRENT TO THE REQUIRED AREA;
2. HEATING DURING WELDING AND QUICK COOLING AFTER WELDING;
3. DEFINE THE WELDING ZONE AND MAINTAIN CORRECT PRESSURE;
SHAPE OF ELECTRODES:
1. AS TIP OF THE ELECRODE DETERMINE THE WELDING AREA ON THE WORK
PIECE IT IS NECESSARY TO MAINTAIN THE CONTANT SHAPE FREE FROM
WEAR
2. MANY TYPES OF SHAPES ARE USED IN ELECTRODES
F - TYPES R - TYPES CF - TYPES CR - TYPES

P - TYPES
The most commonly used electrodes shapes are “p” and “CR” types.
ELECTRODE TIP: WATER
TEFLON TUBE
NEW
USED
2~3 mm
WEAR LINE 0.5 mm
6 mm
TIP DIA BE CHECKED AFTER DRESSING WITH GO / NOGO GAUGE
GO NOGO
6~8 mm > 8mm
GAUGE FOR TIP DIA

ALIGNMENT OF THE TIPS:
100 % Matching 90 % Matching < 90 % Matching
BEST SPOT ACCEPTABLE NOT OK

TIP ALIGNMENT
OK
ERW WELDING ELECTRODES:
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE TIPS
S
ERW SPOT WELDERS

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING IS EXTENSIVELY USED FOR MAKING CAR BODY.

There are three basic types of resistance welding bonds:

I. Solid state,
II. Fusion, and
III. Reflow braze bond.
I. In a solid state bond, also called a thermo-compression bond, dissimilar materials

with dissimilar grain structure, e.g. molybdenum to tungsten, are joined using a
too short heating time, high weld energy, and high force. There is little melting
and minimum grain growth, but a definite bond and grain interface. Thus the
materials actually bond together while still in the solid state. The bonded
materials typically exhibit excellent shear and tensile strength, but poor peel
strength.
II. In a fusion bond, either similar or dissimilar materials with similar grain
structures are heated to the melting point (liquid state) of both. The subsequent
cooling and combination of the materials forms a “nugget” alloy of the two
materials with larger grain growth. Typically, high weld energies at either short
or long weld times, depending on physical characteristics, are used to produce
fusion bonds. The bonded materials usually exhibit excellent tensile, peel and shear
strengths.
III. In a reflow braze bond, a resistance heating of a low temperature brazing

material, such as gold or solder, is used to join either dissimilar materials or
widely varied thick/thin material combinations. The brazing material must “wet”
to each part and possess a lower melting point than the two work pieces. The
resultant bond has definite interfaces with minimum grain growth. Typically the
E L E C T R I C R E S I S TA N C E S P O T W E L D E R ( E R W )
Developed in 1887
Weld
Nugget
~
Significant variables are the

Current, Pressure, Squeeze, Weld
and Hold time.
H=I2Rt
H=Heat
I=Current
R=Resistance
t=time
The high contact resistance at the interface of the two faying surfaces cause intense heat while
passing the ERW current. Fusion temperature at the center of the nugget exceeds 2000oC.
P
r
Pressing Time
e
s
s
u
r
e On Time
Squeeze Time Weld Time Hold time Off Time
Initial Pressure Fused by the resistance heating at

high welding current WELD NUGGET is
formed
ERW SPOT WELDING - TIME SCALE

SQUEEZE TIME: is the time interval between the opening application of t
he electrode force to the work piece and the initial application of ERW we
lding current. Squeeze time is necessary to delay the welding current until
the electrode force has attained its most wanted level.
WELD TIME: in which the welding current is applied to the work part. Th
e weld time is measured and adjusted in cycles of the line voltages as are
all timing functions. One cycle is 1/50 of a second in a 50 Hz power syst
em.
As the weld time is, more or less, related to what is required for the weld
-spot, it is really complicated to provide an exact value of weld time.
HOLD TIME: is the time, after the welding, when the electrodes are still applied to
the sheet to chill the weld. Considered from a welding technical point of view, the
hold time too is the most remarkable welding parameter.
Hold time is absolutely essential to permit the weld nugget to get solidified before t
he part is released, but it must not be protracted too long, as this may cause the h
eat in the weld spot to spread to the electrodes and cause over heating.
Then the ERW electrodes will be exposed to get further worn out. If the hold time i
s too long and the carbon content in material is high (>0.1%), there is an additiona
l risk to obtain a brittle weld nugget; However, a longer hold time is normally reco
mmended while welding galvanized carbon steel.
If excessive heat is applied or applied too quickly, or if the force between the base
materials is too low, or the coating is too thick or too conductive, then the molten
area may extend to the exterior of the work pieces, escaping the containment
force of the electrodes (often up to 30,000 psi). This burst of molten metal is
called expulsion, and when this occurs the metal will be thinner and have less
strength than a weld with no expulsion. This burst of molten metal is called
expulsion, and when this occurs the metal will be thinner and have less strength
than a weld with no expulsion.
Applying too little energy will not melt the metal or will make a poor weld.
Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject molten material, and
make a hole rather than a weld. Another feature of spot welding is that the energy
delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds.
The common method of checking a weld's quality is a peel test. An alternative test
is the restrained tensile test, which is relatively difficult to perform, and requires
calibrated equipment. Because both tests are destructive in nature (resulting in the
loss of sailable material), non-destructive methods such as ultrasound evaluation
are in various states of early adoption by many OEMs.
No Nugget Splash
Large
th or
ng ze
re Si
PRESSURE
St et
d
gg
el
Nu
W
o od
G
Small
Explosion
CURRENT
Nugget diameter
3.5√t 5√t
The nugget diameter should

ideally be between 3.5t and WELDING TIME
5t in order to provide proper

strength.
WELDING CURRENT
4.4
Shear strength, N/mm2
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.6
Galvanized sheet steel

3.4
3.2
4.5 5.0 5. 6.
N u g g e t s i z e , i n5 m m 0
Typical minimum weld strength value (shear to failure) for ordinary carbon steel of 280 N/mm 2
tensile strength minimum.
Nominal 3.5√t Nominal 4√t Nominal 5√t Nominal 6√t
Sheet Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld Weld
thickness diamet strength diameter strength diameter strength diameter strength
mm er Ø k/N Ø mm k/N Ø mm k/N Ø mm k/N
mm
0.6 2.7 1.3 3.1 1.6 3.9 2.0 4.6 2.3
0.8 3.1 2.3 3.6 3.0 4.5 3.6 5.4 4.2
1.0 3.5 3.2 4.0 3.7 5.0 4.3 6.0 5.1
1.2 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.6 5.5 5.4 6.6 6.2
1.6 4.4 5.5 5.1 6.0 6.3 7.4 7.6 8.3
2.0 5.0 7.2 5.7 8.4 7.1 10.8 8.5 13.0
2.5 5.5 10.6 6.3 11.8 7.9 14.5 9.5 17.3
3.0 6.1 12.0 6.9 14.0 8.66 17.8 10.4 22.0
Spacing Size
Minimum size & spacing - essentials for ERW spot-welding of ordinary steel.
Sheet Weld Size Spacing Sheet Weld Size Spacing
thickness Ø mm mm thickness Ø mm mm
mm mm
0.38 - 0.62 3.0 9.7 2.15-2.52 6.6 39.6
0.63 - 0.87 3.8 15.7 2.53 - 2.91 7.1 42.7
0.88 - 1.13 4.3 19.1 2.92-3.29 7.4 46.0
1.14 - 1.38 5.1 23.9 3.30-3.67 7.6 49.3
1.39 - 1.64 5.3 26.9 3.68-4.05 8.1 52.3
1.65 - 1.89 5.6 30.0 4.06-4.22 8.4 55.4
1.90 - 2.14 6.1 35.1 Ref: D 8.7 Recommended Practices for
Automotive Weld Quality – Resistance Spot
Welding.
EFFECT OF REDUCED SPACING BETWEEN THE SPOT–WELDS:
Right
Wrong
Shunt Current Effect
In case of space constraints, alternative process (projection spot welder) shall best be
used, as shown ahead.
Depending upon the job, the process variation, or the resistance welding
method, a so-called “shunt current/effect” may be noticed. This current
component, as a rule, does not contribute to the formation of a weld
nugget; under certain circumstances it prevents to become a reliable welding
process and calls for a projection spot welder to be used.
The shunt current leads to undesired fusing contacts and, because of the
lacking electrode force at this point, also to damages to the plate surface.
A FEW GUIDE LINES FOR ERW SPOT WELDING
Sheet thickness, Electrode force, Weld current, Weld time Hold time Electrode diameter,
t [mm] F [kN] I [A] [cycles] [cycles] d [mm]
0.63 + 0.63 2.00 8 500 6 1 6
0.71 + 0.71 2.12 8 750 7 1 6
0.80 + 0.80 2.24 9 000 8 2 6
0.90 + 0.90 2.36 9 250 9 2 6
1.00 + 1.00 2.50 9 500 10 2 6
1.12 + 1.12 2.80 9 750 11 2 6
1.25 + 1.25 3.15 10 000 13 3 6 , 7
1.40 + 1.40 3.55 10 300 14 3 6, 7
1.50 + 1.50 3.65 10 450 15 3 6, 7

1.60 + 1.60 4.00 10 600 16 3 6, 7
1.80 + 1.80 4.50 10 900 18 3 6, 7

2.00 + 2.00 5.00 11 200 3x7+2 4 7, 8
2.24 + 2.24 5.30 11 500 3x8+2 4 7, 8
2.50 + 2.50 5.60 11 800 3x9+3 5 8
2.80 + 2.80 6.00 12 200 4x8+2 6 8
3.00 + 3.00 6.15 12 350 4x9+2 6 8
3.15 + 3.15 6.30 12 500 4x9+2 6 8
Resistance spot welding is used for making rail car body panels.
Resistance spot welding is used for making complete side walls of rail coach
ROBOTIC WELDER
RWMA CLASS OF ERW ELECTRODES:
I. RWMA Class- 1
II. RWMA Class-2
III. RWMA Class-3 and
IV. RWMA Class-4

RWMA RWMA RWMA RWMA Observations
Class-1 No. Applications Description
Zirconiu C1500 Especially heat treated Zr- A small addition of Zr alloy to Cu
m 0 Cu alloy that meets the improves resistance to softening &
Copper minimum electrical deformation at high temperatures.
conductivity & hardness It is used for minimizing sticking
spec’s of Class-1 alloy tendency while doing spot welding
Electrodes for welding of galvanized materials. It is also
a l u m i n u m , used in many high temperature
magnesium alloys, applications i.e. aerospace, power
brass, bronze & generation, etc.
coated materials.
Cadmiu C1620 A high conductivity work Addition of Cd alloy to Cu adds
These alloys can b e
m 0 hardened Cd-Cu alloy, but hardness & resists softening. Well
used for spot and
Copper not heat treatable. utilized wherever high electrical
seam welding.
conductivity and fatigue strength
are needed. It is also specified for
spot welding of aluminum; the high
thermal conductivity enables it to
prevent electrode sticking over these
soft and conductive materials.
Note:- Cd-Cu has been replaced by
Zr-Cu (C15000) for all RWMA
applications.
Zirconium C1815 Typically heat treated Cr- Addition of Zr alloy to Cr-Cu adds
- 0 Zr-Cu alloy that meets the creep resistance at high operating
Chromiu These are stronger minimum electrical and temperature and reportedly
m than Class-1 hardness specific’s of Class-2 reduces the sticking tendency of
Copper materials, have alloys. Should be used in heat electrodes to the work during spot
slightly lower treated condition. welding of galvanized materials.
e l e c t r i c a l C18150 is chiefly specified for the
conductivity. Applied use of electrodes.
for spot a nd s e a m
Chromiu C1820 A high conductivity Cr-Cu Cr-Cu is the primary copper alloy
welding of hot &
m 0 alloy that obtains its best used for ERW spot & seam welding.
cold rolled steel,
Copper mechanical traits by the This alloy attains good hardness
stainles s s t e e l a nd
heat-treatment and cold- and conductivity by the combination
low conductivity
working together. Should be of heat-treatment & cold -work.
brass & bronze.
used in heat treated status, C18200 is utilized for electrodes,
These are also used
only. holders, adopters, as well as
as flash welding dies,
numerous electrical applications
and as electrodes for
where resistance to deformation at
welding galvanized
high temperature is required or
steel & other coated
whenever higher mechanical aspects
materials.
are needed than C11000 .
Their high hardness Heat treatable copper alloy A very hard heat treatable copper
Nickel - C1800 makes them ideal for with a combination of high alloy with moderate electrical
Silicon - 0 spot & seam welding tensil e s t re ng t h a nd g o o d conductivity. C18000 is utilized
Chromiu electrodes for metals electrical & thermal when a combination of very good
m of high resistance properties. Should be used in mechanical strength along w it h
Copper such as Stainless- heat-treated condition. moderate electrical/thermal
steel, Monel, Inconel, conductivity are required. It offers
Nichrome. As a excellent value for the properties it
casting, they are renders. It is a viable substitute for
used for flash-butt C17500 and C17510 in several
& pro je c t i o n applications.
welding electrodes
Heat treatable copper alloy A very hard heat treatable
and fixtures. Other
Nickel - C1751 with a combination of high beryllium-copper alloy with
uses are welding gun
Beryllium 0 tensil e s t re ng t h a nd g o o d moderate electrical conductivity.
apparatus, seam
Copper electrical & thermal C17510 can be utilized when a
welding bearing and
properties. Should be used in combination of very good
other current
heat-treated condition. mechanical strength along w it h
carrying structural
moderate electrical & thermal
parts. It is suggested
conductivity are required.
for flash, upset-butt
& projection,
welding electrodes.
Electrode material Heat treatable Be-Cu alloy The hardest and highest strength
Beryllium C1720 for flash, upset-butt having unusual combination copper alloy, Be-Cu is spe c ifie d
Copper 0 and projection of very high hardness, high whenever the mechanical strength is
welding applications strength and lower electrical the limiting design feature for a
where the pressures conduc t iv it y t h a n c l a s s - 3 copper alloy. It is used frequently in
are very high & materials. Should be used in the form of inserts, tooling facings,
wear is s e v e re b ut heat-treated state and a nd s e a m w e l d e r b us hing s . I t is
the heat is not considered w h e re t h e re is available in annealed condition
excessive. They are concern with high pressure which is more readily machined and
use d fre q ue nt l y in density and severe wear, but thereafter heat-treated.
the form of inserts where heating, due to its low
and facings. They conductivity, is not excessive.
may also be used for
seam welding
bushings.
Electrodes for spot resistance welding have the property of transferring the electrode
force and the welding current. They are wearing parts and, therefore, simply
replaceable.
Depending on the shape and type of electrode, solid electrodes or electrode caps, must
be either re-machined or recycled. The slide depicts ahead various types of electrodes,
electrode caps and holders.
Dependent upon the electrode application, different alloyed electrode materials are
used, as stated before. The added alloying elements influence the red hardness, the
tempering resistance, the conductivity, the fusion temperature, the electrode alloying
tendency, and, finally, the machine-ability of the electrode material. When beryllium
is used as an alloying element, the admissible M A C values must be strictly adhered
Already during the design phase of the components to be welded,

importance must be attached to a good accessibility of the welding point.
Moreover, the electrode force which is imperative to the process must be
applied in a way that no damage is done to the work piece. In the ideal case,
the welding point is accessible from the top and from below.
In order to avoid the displacement of the electrodes, the electrode working

surface shall be flat. Also during the design phase space must be provided for
an adequately large clearing zone around the working point, in order to
guarantee the unrestricted electrode approach to the working point.
PRINCIPLE STRUCTURE OF ERW SPOT WELDING EQUIPMENTS:
The main components are:
the machine frame,

the welding transformer with secondary lines, and
The electrode pressure system and the control system.
This principle design applies to spot, projection and roller seam welding
machines. Differences are to be found merely in the type of electrode fittings
and in the electrode shapes.
ERW welding typically employs power in the form of direct current, alternating
current, medium frequency half-wave direct current, or high-frequency half wave
direct current. However, AC current has the simplest arrangement and cost effective
too, generally a transformer supplies energy to the weld joint in the form of low
voltage, high current AC power; however, unavoidable are the disadvantages of
current zeros and cooling of weld nuggets. In relation to the average current values,
peak loads occur and, with that, increased electrode wear. Such extreme peak loads
do not occur with DC . However, the structural design of a DC supply unit is more
complicated and thus more expensive than the AC supply.
As conventional welding machines operate with a 50 Hz primary current supply, the

welding current can be controlled only in 20 ms units (1 period). When the inverter-
direct current or the medium-frequency technique is used, a finer setting of the
Continued…
In order to realize the higher welding current in shorter times, the impulse
capacitor resistance welding technique is used. The rectified primary current
is stored in capacitors and, through a high-voltage transformer, converted
to high welding currents. The advantages of this technique are low heat
input and high reproducibility. Because of the high density energy, materials
with good conductivity too can be welded including multiple projection spot
welds.
A disadvantage of this system is, apart from its high costs, the difficult
regulation of welding current.
PROJECTION SPOT WELD:
is a modification of ERW spot welding, indeed, in which the weld is localized by means of raised
sections or projections, on one or both of the work pieces to be joined. Heat is concentrated at the
projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or the closer spacing of welds. The
projections can also serve as a means of positioning the work pieces. Projection welding is often
used to weld studs, nuts, and other screw machine parts to metal plate. It is also frequently used
to join crossed wires and bars. This is another high-production process, and multiple projection
welds can be arranged by suitable designing and jigging.
Depending on the demands on the joint strength or on the projection rigidity, different projection
shapes are applied. These are annular, circular or longitudinal projections. The welding projections
are, according to their size, adapted to the used plate thickness and may, therefore, appear as
different types in the work piece: embossed projections, solid projections and natural projections.
The shape is embossed onto the plate surface by appropriate die plates, dies and, if necessary,
counter dies.
PROJECTION SPOT WELDER (RPW)
~
Step-2
~
Step-1
Ideal for the multiple spot welds, wherever the spacing is the chief constraint , by
the design.
ERW PROJECTION SPOT-WELD:
Spacing
Pre-
formed S
Projection
s
Wherever the space constraints, lower than the minimum requirements for ERW Spot Welds or
uneven thickness joint conditions exist, then the option of Projection Spot Welding is selected to
obtain the acceptable weld nuggets.
PRE-FORMED PROJECTIONS
PRE-FORMED PROJECTIONS
FUSION WELDING BY PRESSURE

SEAM WELDING:
ERW seam welding is a process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of two
similar metals. The seam may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an
automated or mechanized system. It differs from butt-welding in that butt welding
typically welds the entire joint at once where the seam weld forms progressively
starting from one end. Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes,
usually made out of alloyed copper, to apply pressure and current. The electrodes are
disc shaped and rotate as the material passes between them. This allows the
electrodes to stay in constant touch with the material to make a continuous long
seam welds. The electrodes may also move or assist the movement of the material.
Seam welding produces an extremely durable weld because the joint is forged due to
the heat and pressure applied. A properly welded joint formed by resistance welding
is typically stronger than the material from which it is formed.
In contrast to resistance spot welding the disc-shaped electrodes remain in contact
and turn continuously after the first weld spot has been produced. At the points
where a welding spot is to be produced again the current flow is initiated. Dependent
on the electrode twist rate and on the welding current frequency, spot welds or seal
welds with overlapping weld-nuggets are produced.
A transformer supplies energy to the weld joint in the form of low voltage, high
current AC power. The application of DC current also produces seal welds. The joint of
the work piece has high electrical resistance relative to the rest of the circuit and is
heated to its melting point by the current. The semi-molten surfaces are pressed
together by the welding pressure that creates a fusion bond, resulting in a uniformly
welded structure. Most seam welders use water cooling through the electrode,
transformer and controller assemblies due to the heat generated.
~
R E S I S TA N C E S E A M W E L D E R ( R S E W )
 Resistance seam welding (RSEW) is a resistance welding process which
produces coalescence at the faying surfaces the heat obtained from resistance
to electric current through the work parts held together under pressure by
electrodes OR A type of continuous weld made between or upon overlapping
metal parts.
 The resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance spot welds made

progressively along a joint by rotating the electrodes.
FLASH BUTT WELDER:
The pieces of metal to be welded are set apart at a predetermined
distance based on material thickness, material composition, and desired
properties of the finished weld. Current is applied to the metal, and the
gap between the two pieces creates resistance and produces the arc
required to melt the metal. Once the pieces of metal reach the required
temperature, they are pressed together, effectively to forge them
together.
Flash butt welding is controlled very often by distance rather than time
such that the flashing would occur for a pre-determined length; say
5mm, before the upsetting cycle starts. Upsetting may then also be
controlled by distance. A parameter would be set to apply the upsetting
force until a certain distance has been upset. It is generally the upsetting
distance that is more important than the upsetting time.
At the end of upsetting there is commonly a 'hold time' during which the
The railroad industry is using flash-butt welder to join sections of mainline
rails together. That mainline rail is also known as continuously welded rail
(CWR) and is much more smoother than the mechanically joined rails
together because there are no gaps left between the rail sections. This
continuous rail is used in several country for high speed rails due to the high
smoothness.
A study proved that flash-butt welding is also beneficial in railroad industry

because it permits dissimilar metals and including non-ferrous to be joined.
This allows crossings, which are generally composed of high manganese steels,
to be effectively welded to the carbon steel rail with the use of a stainless
steel insert, while keeping the desired mechanical properties of both the rail
and the crossing intact.
The ability of this single process to weld many different metals with simple
parameter adjustments makes it more versatile. Materials and Design
discusses the use of flash welding in fabrication industry to increase the
1
3
2
FLASH BUTT WELDER

PORTABLE RESISTANCE FLASH-BUTT WELDER (FW) FOT RAIL TRACKS

PORTABLE RESISTANCE FLASH-BUTT WELDER (FW) FOT RAIL TRACKS

72
FLASH BUTT WELDER
R E S I S TA N C E U P S E T- B U T T W E L D E R ( U W )
HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE BUTT-WELDER:
HF contact welding transfers welding current to the material through contacts that
rides on top of the strip (see the slide ahead). The weld power is applied directly to
the tube, which makes this process more electrically efficient than the induction
heating.
Because it is more efficient, it is well-suited to even heavy-wall and large-diameter
tube production.
INDUCTION BUTT WELDER (IW):

In the case of induction butt-welding, the weld current is transmitted to
the base metal through a work coil in front of the weld-point (see the slide
ahead). The work coil does not touch the tube, the electrical current is
induced into the parent-material through a magnetic field, which surrounds
the tube. This induction heating system eliminates the contact marks and
reduces the setup required while changing tube size. It also requires fewer
maintenance than the contact welding.
It is estimated that 90 percent of the tube mills use induction or HF

induction welding process.
INDUCTION BUTT WELDER (IW)
ERW TUBE WELDER

C A PA C I T O R - D I S C H A R G E / P E R C U S S I O N S T U D - W E L D E R :
Step Step-
~ ~
-2 1
C D S T U D - W E L D E R ’ S O P E R AT I O N A L S T E P S :
C A PA C I T O R - D I S C H A R G E / P E R C U S S I O N S T U D - W E L D E R :
ARC STUD WELDER (SW):
Step-2 Step-1
~ ~
Stud
Weld metal Ceramic ferrule

A R C S T U D W E L D E R ’ S O P E R AT I O N A L S T E P S :
ARC STUD WELDER (SW) WITH CERAMIC FERULE

A R C S T U D W E L D - B E N D T E S T S 85
AUTHENTIC MEASUREMENT OF ERW SPOT-WELD BY THE PEEL TEST:
Spacing
Actual size is only the nugget or the button Ø

s
S P O T W E L D T E S T: Ref. QW-462.8
Step -1 Step -2 Step -3
HOLD, BEND & PEEL THE PIECES APART

 P E E L T E S T: R e f . Q W - 4 6 2 . 8
Step -1 Step -2 Step -3
H O L D , B E N D & P E E L A PA R T
CROSS-TENSION TEST
S P O T W E L D S H E A R L O A D T E S T: Ref. QW-462.9
Ref: QW-462.10 & 11 Shear Strength Requirements of Spot or Projection Weld Test
Specimens.
SINGLE OR MULTIPLE SPOT WELDS SHEAR TEST SPECIMENS
कौशलं
 S H E A R L O A D T E S T: Ref. QW-462.9 योगः कर्मष
बलं। कौशलं।
Ref: QW-462.10 & 11

Shear Strength Requirements of Spot or Projection Weld Test Specimens.
THANKS A LOT
SINGLE OR MULTIPLE SPOT WELD SHEAR TEST SPECIMEN

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INSTITUTE OF WELDING & TESTING TECHNOLOGY

By: Narendra H. Singh

Spot Weldinger Flash Butt (Percussion)

Projection Spot Upset Butt Welder Arc Stud

GTAW/TIG MIG/MAG Spot Power Beam Spot

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING (ERW)

Some factors influencing the required heat are

In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and

Classification of welding method for

Tantalum Very good Cu 0.60 0.60

R2 H = Heat input in Calories,

R4 T = Time the current flow in cycles

1- Lowering of the top electrode,

1 . SQUEEZE TIME - VITAL FOR ELECTRODE TO BE CLOSE ON TO THE METAL

2. UP SLOPE TIME – ESSENTIAL FOR THE CURRENT TO REACH FROM ZERO

3. WELD TIME - NECESSARY FOR PEAK CURRENT TO FLOW & HEAT.

5. HOLD TIME - TAKEN BY THE ELECTRODES TO HOLD THE SHEETS

*Brings sheet into intimate contact thus effect contact resistance;

*Ensures completion of electric circuit;

*Ensures heat dissipation in weld zone and prevents surface fusion;

*If low: Surface burning and pitting of electrode;

*If High: More current is required;

*Measure the pressure between electrodes with calibrated pressure

F - TYPES R - TYPES CF - TYPES CR - TYPES

TIP DIA BE CHECKED AFTER DRESSING WITH GO / NOGO GAUGE

GAUGE FOR TIP DIA

100 % Matching 90 % Matching < 90 % Matching

BEST SPOT ACCEPTABLE NOT OK

ERW SPOT WELDERS

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING IS EXTENSIVELY USED FOR MAKING CAR BODY.

There are three basic types of resistance welding bonds:

I. In a solid state bond, also called a thermo-compression bond, dissimilar materials

III. In a reflow braze bond, a resistance heating of a low temperature brazing

Significant variables are the

Initial Pressure Fused by the resistance heating at

ERW SPOT WELDING - TIME SCALE

The nugget diameter should

5t in order to provide proper

Galvanized sheet steel

EFFECT OF REDUCED SPACING BETWEEN THE SPOT–WELDS:

Shunt Current Effect

0.71 + 0.71 2.12 8 750 7 1 6

0.80 + 0.80 2.24 9 000 8 2 6

0.90 + 0.90 2.36 9 250 9 2 6

1.00 + 1.00 2.50 9 500 10 2 6

1.12 + 1.12 2.80 9 750 11 2 6

1.25 + 1.25 3.15 10 000 13 3 6 , 7

1.40 + 1.40 3.55 10 300 14 3 6, 7

1.50 + 1.50 3.65 10 450 15 3 6, 7

1.80 + 1.80 4.50 10 900 18 3 6, 7

RWMA CLASS OF ERW ELECTRODES:

II. RWMA Class-2

III. RWMA Class-3 and

IV. RWMA Class-4

Already during the design phase of the components to be welded,

In order to avoid the displacement of the electrodes, the electrode working

The main components are:

the machine frame,

As conventional welding machines operate with a 50 Hz primary current supply, the