Chapter 

2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Interactions of Photons with Matter

Reading Material:
 Chapter 5 in <<Introduction to Health Physics>>, Third edition, by Cember.
 Chapter 8 in <<Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection>>, by James E Turner.
 Chapter 2 in <<Radiation Detection and Measurements>>, Third Edition, by G. F. Knoll.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Classification of Photon Interactions

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles

Coherent or Raleigh Scattering 

Rayleigh scattering
 Rayleigh scattering results from the interaction between the
incident photons and the target atoms as a whole.
 There is no appreciable energy loss by the photon to the atom.
 The scattering angle is very small.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Photoelectric Effect
In photoelectric process, an incident photon transfer its energy to an orbital
electron, causing it to be ejected from the atom.

E e   hv  E b
h is the Planck' s constant
v is the frenquency of the photon

 Photoelectric interaction is with the atom in a whole and can not take place
with free electrons.
 Photoelectric effect creates a vacancy in one of the electron shells, which
leaves the atom at an excited state.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Photoelectric Effect Cross Section 
Probability of photoelectric absorption per atom is

 Z4
 3 .5
low energy
(hv)
  5
 Z high energy
 (hv) 3.5

 The interaction cross section for photoelectric effect depends strongly on Z. 

 Photoelectric effect is favored at lower photon energies. It is the major

interaction process for photons at low hundred keV energy range.

Page 49, Radiation Detection and Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Photoelectric Effect – Absorption Edges

 Requires sufficient photon energy for

P.E. interaction.

 Interaction probability decreases

dramatically with increasing energy.

 P.E. interaction is significant only for

low energy photons, when the
photon energy is close to the binding
energies of the target atoms.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Relaxation Processes after Photoelectric Interaction
 The excited atoms will de‐excite through one of the following processes:

Competing 
Processes

Generation of characteristic X‐rays Generation of Auger electrons

 Auger electron emission dominates in low‐Z elements. Characteristic X‐ray

emission dominates in higher‐Z elements.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 •Chapter 3: Radioactivity

Auger Electrons

149
NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Compton Scattering
 In Compton scattering, the incident gamma ray photon is deflected by an orbital
electron in the absorbing material.
 Part of the energy carried by the incident photon is transferred to the target
electron in the atom, causing it to be ejected from the atom.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Basic Kinematics in Compton Scattering
The energy transfer in Compton scattering may be derived as the following:
 Assuming that the electron binding energy is small compared with the energy of
the incident photon – elastic scattering.
 Write out the conservation of energy and momentum:

Conservation of energy

Conservation of momentum

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Transfer in Compton Scattering
If we assume that the electron is free and at rest, the scattered gamma ray has an
energy
Initial photon energy, v: photon frequency 
hv
hv   ,
hv
1 (1  cos  )
m0 c 2
mass of electron Scattering angle

and the photon transfers part of its energy to the electron (assumed to be at rest
before the collision), which is known as the recoil electron. Its energy is simply
assuming the binding
hv
Erecoil  hv  hv  hv  energy of the electron is
hv negligible.
1 2
(1  cos( ))
m0 c
In the simplified elastic scattering case, there is an one‐to‐one relationship between
scattering angle and energy loss!!
Reading: Page 51, Radiation Detection and Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Transfer in Compton Scattering

The scattering angles of the photon and the recoil electron is related by

 The electron recoil angle  is confined to the forward direction (0 ≤  ≤ 
90.
 The scattering angle of the photon can take any value between 0 and 180.

Reading: Page 51, Radiation Detection and Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Transfer in Compton Scattering
 The maximum energy carried by the recoil electron is obtained by setting  to
180,

2h
Emax 
2  mc 2 h
 The maximum energy transfer is exemplified by the Compton edge in measured
gamma ray energy spectra.

Figure from Atoms, Radiation, and

Radiation Protection, James E
Turner, p180.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Transfer in Compton Scattering

hv
Erecoil  hv  hv  hv 
hv
1 2
(1  cos( ))
m0 c

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Transfer in Compton Scattering

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Transfer in Compton Scattering

Initial photon energy

Small angle scattering:
Energy carried by the scattered gamma ray 
depends strongly on scattering angle 

Large angle scattering:
Energy carried by the scattered gamma ray 
depends only weakly on scattering angle 

Figure from Page 321, Radiation Detection and 
Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Derivation of the Relationship Between Scattering Angle 
and Energy Loss  
The relation between energy the scattering angle and energy transfer are derived
based on the conservation of energy and momentum:

   
phv  pe  phv  pe

Ehv  Ee  Ehv  Ee

Are those terms truly zero?

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Compton Scattering with Non‐stationary Electrons –
Doppler Broadening
 It is so far assumed that (a) the electron is free and stationary and (b) the
incident photon is unpolarized.

 When an incident photon is reflected by a non‐stationary electron, for example

an bond electron, an extra uncertainty is added to the energy of the scattered
photon. This extra uncertainty is called Doppler broadening.

hv
hv    (hv)
hv
1 2
(1  cos( ))
m0 c
The one‐to‐one relationship between scattering angle and energy loss holds only
when incident photon energy is far greater than the bonding energy of the
electron…

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Compton Scattering with Non‐stationary Electrons 
– Doppler Broadening
Comparison of the energy spectra for the photons scattered by C and Cu samples. Ehv=40keV,
=90 degrees
With Doppler broadening

With Doppler
broadening

Without Doppler 
broadening

Without Doppler broadening

The Doppler broadening is stronger in Cu than in C because of the Cu electrons have greater
bonding energy.
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Angular Distribution of the Scattered Gamma Rays

The differential scattering cross section of per electron is given by the Klein‐
Nishina formula:

1  cos  
2
d  1   1  cos 2    2 2

( )  re2    1  , 𝑚 𝑠𝑟
   
d    (1  cos  )[1   (1  cos  )] 
2
 1 (1 cos )   2
where
hv k0e 2
 2
and re  2
is the classic electron radius (2.818  10-15 m )
m0 c m0 c
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Angular Distribution of the Scattered Gamma Rays
The differential scattering cross section per electron – the probability of a photon scattered into
a unit solid angle around the a given scattering angle , when the incident photon is passing
normally through a thin layer of scattering material that contains one electron per unit area.

𝑑𝜎 1 1 cos 𝜃 𝛼 1 cos 𝜃
𝜃 𝑟 1 𝑚 𝑠𝑟
𝑑Ω 1 𝛼 1 cos 𝜃 2 1 cos 𝜃 1 𝛼 1 cos 𝜃
 Chapter 5: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Angular Distribution of the Scattered Gamma Rays

Incident photons with higher energies

tend to scatter with smaller angles
(forward scattering).

Incident photons with lower energy (a

few hundred keV) have greater chance
of undergoing large angle scattering
(back scattering).
Radial distance represents the 
differential cross section.

The higher the energy carried by an incident gamma ray, the more likely that the gamma ray
undergoes forward scattering …
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Total Compton Collision Cross Section for an Electron
Compton Collision Cross Section is defined as the total cross section per electron
for Compton scattering. It can be derived by integrating the differential cross
section, , over 4 solid angle.

Since

𝑑Ω 2𝜋 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃,

then the Compton scattering cross section per electron is given by

d𝜎
𝜎 2𝜋 ⋅ sin 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃 𝑚
d𝛺

Note that the Compton scattering cross

section per electron is given in unit of m2.
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Distribution of Compton Recoil Electrons
Given the Klein‐Nishina formula, how do we derive the energy spectrum of recoil
electrons? In other words, how do we derive the probability of a gamma‐ray
undergoing a Compton scatting and transferring an energy falling into an energy
window, 𝐸 ∈ 𝐸 Δ𝐸, 𝐸 Δ𝐸 ?

 2 1  cos  2
2
d    1  cos 2    2 1
( )  re2 
1
  1 
   m sr
 
d  1   (1  cos  )   (1  cos  )[1   (1  cos  )] 
2
 2
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Distribution of Compton Recoil Electrons
Klein‐Nishina formula can be used to derive the energy spectrum of recoil
electrons as the following:

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝛺 𝑑𝜃
⋅ ⋅ m ⋅ keV
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝛺 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝐸

If a gamma‐ray underwent a Compton Scattering, then probability of the gamma‐ray

transferring a given amount of energy falling into a small energy window, 𝐸 ∈
𝐸 Δ𝐸, 𝐸 Δ𝐸 would be proportional to

𝑑𝜎
𝑝 ∝ 𝛥𝐸 ⋅
𝑑𝐸

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Distribution of Compton Recoil Electrons
The energy distribution for the recoil electrons could be derived with the following differential
cross section
d d d d

dErecoil d d dErecoil

The three partial derivative terms on the right‐hand side of the equation can be derived from the
following relationships:

 From Klein‐Nishina formula: 

𝜃 𝑟 1

 From Compton equation:
𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑣 ⇒

1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
⋅ ⋅

 From the known scattering geometry: 𝑑𝛺 2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ⇒ 2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Distribution of Compton Recoil Electrons
Therefore, the differential cross section becomes

𝑟 1

1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
⋅

2𝜋 sin 𝜃

Remember than

𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑣 ,

Then could be written as an explicit function of 𝐸 .

(𝜃)  (𝐸 )
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Distribution of Compton Recoil Electrons
Klein‐Nishina formula can be used to calculate the energy spectrum of recoil
electrons as the following:

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝛺 𝑑𝜃
⋅ ⋅ m ⋅ keV
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝛺 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝐸

If a gamma‐ray underwent a Compton Scattering, then probability of the gamma‐ray

transferring a given amount of energy that fall into a small energy window, 𝐸 ∈
𝐸 Δ𝐸, 𝐸 Δ𝐸 would be proportional to

𝑑𝜎
𝑃 ∝ 𝛥𝐸 ⋅
𝑑𝐸

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Energy Distribution of Compton Recoil Electrons
Remember that the maximum amount of energy
2 h
that a photon can transfer to an electron in a Emax 
2  mc 2 h
single Compton scattering is given by:

 The energy distribution of the recoil electrons

derived using the Klein‐Nishina formula is
closely related to the energy spectrum
measured with “small” detectors (in particular,
the so‐called Compton continuum).

From Page 311, Radiation Detection and Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Average fraction of energy transfer to the recoil electron 
through a single Compton Collision
Average recoil electron energy Eavg_recoil is of special interest for dosimetry is the,
since it is an approximation of the radiation dose delivered by each photon
through a single Compton scattering interaction.

The average fraction of energy transfer to the recoil electron through a single
Compton scattering is given by

_
⋅ 𝜎 ⋅ 𝑑𝐸 ,

where 𝜎 is the Compton scattering cross section per electron and is given by

𝜎 2𝜋 ⋅ sin 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃 𝑚 .

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2010
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Average fraction of energy transfer to the recoil electron 
through a single Compton Collision
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Total Compton Collision Cross Section for an Electron
Compton Collision Cross Section is defined as the total cross section per electron
for Compton scattering. It can be derived by integrating the differential cross
section, , over 4 solid angle.

Since

𝑑Ω 2𝜋 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃,
the total Compton scattering cross section per electron is given by

d𝜎
𝜎 2𝜋 ⋅ sin 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃 𝑚
d𝛺

Note that the Compton scattering cross

section per electron is given in unit of m2.
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Linear Attenuation Coefficient through Compton Scattering

The differential Compton cross section given by the Klein‐Nishina Formula can also
be related to another important parameter for gamma ray dosimetry – the linear
attenuation coefficient.

Note that 𝜎 is the Compton scattering cross section per electron and is given by

𝜎 2𝜋 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑑𝜃 𝑚 .

Linear attenuation coefficient through Compton scattering: the probability of a

photon interacting with the absorber through Compton scattering while traversing
a unit distance.

𝜎 𝑁𝑍𝜎 𝑚 ,

Where NZ is the electron density of the absorber materials (number of electrons per 𝑚 )
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Pair Production
Definition:
Pair production refers to the creation of
an electron‐positron pair by an incident
gamma ray in the vicinity of a nucleus.

Characteristics
 The minimum energy required is

2me2 c 2
E  2me c  2
 2me c 2  1.022 MeV
mnucleus
 The process is more probable with a heavy nucleus and incident gamma rays
with higher energies.

 The positrons emitted will soon annihilate with ordinary electrons near by and
produces two 511keV gamma rays.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

Photonuclear Reaction
 A photon can be absorbed by an atomic nucleus and knock out a nucleon.
This process is called photonuclear reaction. For example,

9
4 Be  hv 48Be 01n, Q  value : 1.666MeV
2
1 H  hv11H  01n, Q  value : 2.226MeV

 The photon must possess enough energy to overcome the nuclear binding
energy, which is generally several MeV.
 The threshold, or the minimum photon energy required, for (,p) reaction is
generally higher than that for (,n) reactions. Since the repulsive Coulomb
barrier that a proton must overcome to escape from the nucleus.
 Other nuclear reaction s are also possible, such as (, 2n), (, np), (, ) and
photon induced fission reaction.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons

Interaction of Photons in Matter

From Page 50, Radiation

Detection and
Measurements, Third
Edition, G. F. Knoll, John
Wiley & Sons, 1999.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021
 Chapter 2: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Photons with Matter

The Relative Importance of the Three Major Type of X 
and Gamma Ray Interactions

Pair production cross section = Compton cross section
p.e. cross section = Compton cross section

Page 52, Chapter 2 in Radiation Detection and Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring  2021