No matter what content or subject you’re teaching, having a lesson plan prepares you for class by

providing a clear outline for the day. Your lesson plans don’t need to be complex or lengthy —
they just need to contain elements about what you’re teaching, how you’re going to be teaching
this material, and what goals and objectives you want your students to meet as part of the
curriculum.

Regardless of the sections within a lesson plan, each class you teach should build on the previous
lesson and move seamlessly into the next. Of course, it’s easier to build lesson plans that flow
from class to class when you know what goes into creating one!

4 advantages of building a lesson plan

In any class, there are going to be things that you can’t predict. But the more prepared you are,
the easier it will be to adapt to the unexpected so you can effectively teach and respond to your
students. Here are some of the main benefits of lesson plans:

1. Inspire personal confidence

Having a lesson plan lets you stay in control of the class and the lesson. As your confidence
comes across to students, you’ll find it easier to keep them focused and on track.

2. Evaluate your own lessons

Lesson plans allow you to evaluate your own teaching performance as you compare your
methods with the plan you’ve prepared. This is a good way to make adjustments to your teaching
style and/or techniques.

3. Organization

Lesson plans help you think in an organized manner, visualizing each step of the outline as you
work from one concept to the next. A disorganized class presents too many opportunities for
students to get off task and misbehave.

4. A guide for substitute teachers

With your lesson plan as a guide, substitute teachers will know exactly what your students are
learning that day, making it easier for them to stay on track to meet any curriculum objectives
that are set for your class.

The components of a great lesson plan

While there’s no single way to create a lesson plan, there are some important components that go
into building each one.

Every lesson that you build is an entire segment that you create to teach your students something
new. As you build a lesson it’s important to keep all your students in mind and ask the following
essential questions before you begin:

Who are your students?

This may seem silly — of course, you know who your students are … right? Before you can
write an effective lesson plan, you need to really know your students. This includes information
such as their interests, ability levels, whether they work better independently or in groups, any
special needs that may require lesson tweaks, and their backgrounds. Knowing their learning
preferences can also be helpful — some students learn better with visual aids, while others do
better as auditory learners. You can incorporate videos to appeal to both kinds of learners!

What do your students already know?

Knowing your students’ prior knowledge of a subject can help you plan lessons. If you’ve been
building lesson plans all along to follow a curriculum, you’ll already know what you’ve
previously presented to your students; this allows you to continue with the flow.

What’s the best way to get them to learn?

Determine the best ways to get your students to learn. Younger students may do well with a lot
of interactive teaching, while an older class may do better with a lecture and slideshow. After the
first few classes, you’ll have a better idea of how to keep your students engaged.

You can break down the teaching techniques that you can use in your lesson plan into:

 The types of students you have in your class; including auditory, visual, and kinesthetic
learners.
 The type of learning and goals you’re aiming for. As an exercise, fill in this blank: “By the
end of today’s class, I’m hoping my students will have learned or be able to ___.”
 The resources, materials, and teaching environment that are available to you, such as a
classroom, a field trip, or selected readings in a study hall.
Steps to building your lesson plan
Once you’ve identified the components that need to go into teaching your class, you’re ready to
use these eight steps to build your lesson plan:

1. Identify the objectives

To build a lesson, you first need to identify the objectives of each class. What do you hope to
accomplish by the end of the period? Are there specific things that your students should know or
be able to do? If you’re teaching younger students, a lesson objective may be that they’re able to
identify animals that live in the rainforest after reading a chapter about animals in Brazil. For
older students, this goal may involve having learned how to solve algebraic equations.

2. Determine the needs of your students

With this particular lesson, are you introducing new material or reviewing what you’ve already
taught in a previous class? At the start of the class, be sure to let students know what to expect so
they can stay focused on meeting your objectives. When reviewing material, some of your
students may need more encouragement than others. Identifying these needs in your lesson plan
will help you prepare.

3. Plan your resources and materials

Make a list of the resources and materials you’ll need to teach this lesson, such as paper, pens,
and rulers. Don’t forget to include technology resources in your plan when appropriate —
laptops, and gamified learning tools, like apps or educational websites.

4. Engage your students

What’s the point of a lesson if your students aren’t engaged? You want them to be interested in
what you’re teaching. Thus, to prepare, you need to get them interested in what this lesson is all
about. Give them an outline of what you’re going to be presenting. Then, introduce the subject
more informally. For example, if you’re teaching students a formula, try deriving it from scratch
to build their intuition for where it comes from. Or, if you’re discussing certain historical events,
try to draw parallels between those and any current events so students can relate to the material.

5. Instruct and present information

Once you’ve set the stage for what you’ll be teaching, it’s time to present the information to your
students. This is the time to instruct and use whatever resources you’ve included in your lesson
plan. Involve your students in the process whenever possible so they’re engaged. For example,
you could ask students to come to the board and solve certain problems or answer questions.

Whether it’s reading from a book, using props such as blocks for younger students, or displaying
graphics on the screen for older students, it’s all about presenting information and concepts in a
meaningful way. Don’t forget to account for the different learning styles of your students so you
can use teaching methods that work for everyone.

6. Allow time for student practice

After teaching new material, leave time for students to practice. There are three practice methods
that, when worked in order, are a good way to reinforce what you’ve just taught:

 Guided practice — With a guided practice you’re taking students back through what they’ve
just learned, letting them add their own input as they gain confidence with the new
information.
 Collaborative process — With partners or in a group, the collaborative process is all about
students talking with their peers as they explore these new concepts. Circulate among your
class and offer additional instruction or help when needed to clarify points.
 Independent practice — After the collaborative practice, it’s time for students to practice
what they’ve learned on their own. Adapt independent practice according to the material
you’ve just presented, such as using worksheets or having students write a short essay.
7. Ending the lesson

Finish the lesson with a quick wrap-up. Do a brief overview of the lesson, including the main
concepts the class learned. Ask students to identify the key ideas as a refresher, and leave them
with a preview of the next lesson so they know what to expect.

8. Evaluate the lesson

Did you achieve your learning objectives? Provide students with the opportunity to show they
know the material by using a short quiz or test. Depending on the results, your next lesson plan
may include a review of information before moving on to new material.

Sample lesson plan template

You can find many teacher lesson plan templates online. You could even ask your colleagues to
share their format! The lesson plan template included here is easy to use and you can adapt it to
your own needs.
Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better (Jucious, 1963). It helps people
to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization
facilitates the employees' learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the
attainment of the organization's goals and objectives. Van Dersal (1962) defined training as the process of
teaching, informing, or educating people so that (1) they may become as well qualified as possible to do
their job, and (2) they become qualified to perform in positions of greater difficulty and responsibility.

Flippo (1961) differentiated between education and training, locating these at the two ends of a
continuum of personnel development ranging from a general education to specific training. While training
is concerned with those activities which are designed to improve human performance on the job that
employees are at present doing or are being hired to do, education is concerned with increasing general
knowledge and understanding of the total environment. Education is the development of the human mind,
and it increases the powers of observation, analysis, integration, understanding, decision making, and
adjustment to new situations.

Learning theories and training

Learning theories are the basic materials which are usually applied in all educational and training
activities. The more one understands learning theories, the better he or she will be able to make decisions
and apply them to achieving the objectives. The behaviourists, the cognitivists, and the humanists
emphasize different aspects of the teaching-learning process in their approaches. While the behaviourists
stress external conditions (environment) resulting in observations and measurable changes in behaviour,
the cognitivists are more concerned with how the mind works (mental processes such as coding,
categorizing, and representing information in memory). The humanists, on the other hand, emphasize the
affective aspects (e.g., emotions, attitudes) of human behaviour that influence learning (IRRI, 1990). In
extension systems, effective training must be able to take care of all the theories of learning in order to
change the action, belief, and knowledge components of a trainee simultaneously. Andragogy (a theory of
adult learning) is usually used rather than pedagogy (a theory of child learning) in extension training.

Training approach
There are three approaches to training: (1) the traditional approach, (2) the experiential approach, and (3)
the performance-based approach (Rama, Etling, & Bowen, 1993). In the traditional approach, the training
staff designs the objectives, contents, teaching techniques, assignments, lesson plans, motivation, tests,
and evaluation. The focus in this model is intervention by the training staff. In the experiential approach,
the trainer incorporates experiences where in the learner becomes active and influences the training
process. Unlike the academic approach inherent in the traditional model, experiential training emphasizes
real or simulated situations in which the trainees will eventually operate. In this model, the objectives and
other elements of training are jointly determined by the trainers and trainees. Trainers primarily serve as
facilitators, catalysts, or resource persons. In the performance-based approach to training, goals are
measured through attainment of a given level of proficiency instead of passing grades of the trainees.
Emphasis is given to acquiring specific observable skills for a task. This performance-based teacher
education (PBTE) model, developed by Elam (1971), is mostly task or skill centred and is also applicable
to nonformal educational organizations such as extension.

Extension personnel around the world in need of training

Worldwide, there are currently more than 600,000 extension workers comprised of administrative staff,
subject-matter specialists (SMS), fieldworkers, and some multipurpose unidentified people; the Asian and
Pacific countries have absorbed more than 70 per cent of them (Bahal, Swanson, & Earner, 1992). The
percentage of extension personnel by position, as reported by Swanson, Earner, and Bahal (1990), was 7
per cent administrative, 14 per cent SMS, and 79 per cent field staff, with regional differences. Almost 13
per cent of extension workers are women, with significant regional differences (Bahal et al., 1992). The
ratio of SMS to field staff is also low in Asia, Africa, the Near East, and Latin American countries,
varying from about 1:11 to 1:14. The ratio for countries of Europe and North America varies from 1:1.5
to 1:1.6. The worldwide ratio of SMS to field staff is 1:11.5 (Swanson et al., 1990).

Deficiencies in knowledge, skills, and ability among extension personnel, particularly those of Asia,
Africa, and Latin America, are remarkable. About 39 per cent of the extension personnel worldwide have
a secondary-level and 33 per cent an intermediate-level education (Bahal et al., 1992). Moreover, within
each region, there is a lot of variation in basic academic qualifications of the frontline extension workers,
SMS, and administrators. Differences in training received are also wide. In Africa, most frontline
extension workers still have only a secondary school diploma (Bahal et al., 1992). The poor educational
background of extension personnel necessitates regular training.

Types of training
Training may broadly be categorized into two types: preservice training and inservice training. Preservice
training is more academic in nature and is offered by formal institutions following definite curricula and
syllabuses for a certain duration to offer a formal degree or diploma. Inservice training, on the other hand,
is offered by the organization from time to time for the development of skills and knowledge of the
incumbents.

Preservice Training

Preservice training is a process through which individuals are made ready to enter a certain kind of
professional job such as agriculture, medicine, or engineering. They have to attend regular classes in a
formal institution and need to complete a definite curriculum and courses successfully to receive a formal
degree or diploma. They are not entitled to get a professional job unless they can earn a certificate,
diploma, or degree from the appropriate institution. Preservice training contents emphasize mostly
technical subject matter such as crops, animal husbandry, and fisheries as well as pedagogical skills to
prepare the students to work in agriculture.

In general two types of preservice training are available for agricultural staff. These are (1) degree level
(at least a bachelor's degree in agriculture or related field), which is usually offered for four years by a
university or agricultural college; and (2) diploma level, which is mostly offered by the schools of
agriculture for a period of two to three years. The entry point for the former is normally twelve years of
schooling and for the latter ten years of schooling.

Inservice Training and Staff Development

Inservice training is a process of staff development for the purpose of improving the performance of an
incumbent holding a position with assigned job responsibilities. It promotes the professional growth of
individuals. "It is a program designed to strengthen the competencies of extension workers while they are
on the job" (Malone, 1984, p. 209). Inservice training is a problem-centred, learner-oriented, and time-
bound series of activities which provide the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose, broaden
perception of the clientele, and increase capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of techniques.
Inservice training may broadly be categorized into five different types: (1) induction or orientation
training, (2) foundation training, (3) on-the-job training, (4) refresher or maintenance training, and (5)
career development training. All of these types of training are needed for the proper development of
extension staff throughout their service life.

Induction or Orientation Training. Induction training is given immediately after employment to introduce

the new extension staff members to their positions. It begins on the first day the new employee is on the
job (Rogers & Olmsted, 1957). This type of training is aimed at acquainting the new employee with the
organization and its personnel. Induction training for all new personnel should develop an attitude of
personal dedication to the service of people and the organization. This kind of training supplements
whatever preservice training the new personnel might have had (Halim and Ali, 1988). Concerning the
characteristics of a new employee. Van Dersal (1962) said that when people start to work in an
organization for the first time, they are eager to know what sort of outfit they are getting into, what they
are supposed to do, and whom they will work with. They are likely to be more attentive and open-minded
than experienced employees. In fact, the most favourable time for gaining employees' attention and for
moulding good habits among them is when they are new to the job.

Foundation Training. Foundation training is inservice training which is also appropriate for newly
recruited personnel. Besides technical competence and routine instruction about the organization, every
staff member needs some professional knowledge about various rules and regulations of the government,
financial transactions, administrative capability, communication skills, leadership ability, coordination
and cooperation among institutions and their linkage mechanism, report writing, and so on. Foundation
training is made available to employees to strengthen the foundation of their service career. This training
is usually provided at an early stage of service life.

Maintenance or Refresher Training. This training is offered to update and maintain the specialized
subject-matter knowledge of the incumbents. Refresher training keeps the specialists, administrators,
subject-matter officers, extension supervisors, and frontline workers updated and enables them to add to
the knowledge and skills they have already. Maintenance or refresher training usually deals with new
information and new methods, as well as review of older materials. This type of training is needed both to
keep employees at the peak of their possible production and to prevent them from getting into a rut (Van
Dersal, 1962).

On-the-Job Training. This is ad hoc or regularly scheduled training, such as fortnightly training under the
training and visit (T&V) system of extension, and is provided by the superior officer or the subject-matter
specialists to the subordinate field staff. This training is generally problem or technology oriented and
may include formal presentations, informal discussion, and opportunities to try out new skills and
knowledge in the field. The superior officer, administrator, or subject-matter specialist of each extension
department must play a role in providing on-the-job training to the staff while conducting day-to-day
normal activities.

Career or Development Training. This type of in-service training is designed to upgrade the knowledge,
skills, and ability of employees to help them assume greater responsibility in higher positions. The
training is arranged departmentally for successful extension workers, at all levels, for their own
continuing education and professional development. Malone (1984) opined that extension services that
provide the opportunity for all staff to prepare a plan for career training will receive the benefits of having
longer tenured and more satisfied employees, which increases both the effectiveness and efficiency of an
extension service. Malone stated that "career development is the act of acquiring information and
resources that enables one to plan a program of lifelong learning related to his or her worklife" (p. 216).
Although extension workers are responsible for designing their own career development education, the
extension organization sometimes sets some criteria and provides opportunities for the staff by offering
options.

Phases of training
Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number of steps ends with
evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of the training process affects the
whole system, and therefore it is important for a trainer to have a clear understanding about all phases and
steps of the training process. In the broadest view, there are three phases of a training process: planning,
implementation, and evaluation.

Planning Phase

The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training needs identification and
curriculum development - are very important.

Training Needs Identification. Training need is a condition where there is a gap between "what is" and
"what should be" in terms of incumbents' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviour for a particular
situation at one point in time. This gap is called "a problem," which usually occurs when a difference
exists between "desired performance" and "actual performance." The needs identification process assists
trainers in making sure that they have matched a training programme to a training problem. For example,
agricultural extension officers (AEOs) have been giving training to village extension workers (VEWs),
but performance of the VEWs is not improving. The reasons may be:

1. The AEOs lack subject-matter knowledge.

2. The AEOs do not conduct training well.
3. The training centre lacks training facilities.
4. The VEWs are organized not to work properly until their demands are satisfied by the government.

The first two problems are related to knowledge and skills and can be solved effectively by a training
programme, but the third and fourth problems need government attention to solve.

Training needs identification is possible through different analytical procedures. The major procedures
used in determining training needs are the following:

Organizational analysis determines where training emphasis should be placed within the organization and
is based on the objectives of an organization. Concerning what one should do in analysing an
organization, McGhee and Thayer (1961) suggest four steps:

1. Stating the goals and objectives of an organization

2. Analysing the human resources
3. Analysing efficiency indices
4. Analysing the organizational climate

The results of these analyses are then compared with the objectives of the organization. These
comparisons point to specific areas in which training is needed.

Individual analysis aims at identifying specific training needs for an individual or group of employees so
that training can be tailored to their needs. This analysis centres on individuals and their specific needs
concerning the skills, knowledge, or attitudes they must develop to perform their assigned tasks. The
possible methods or techniques for individual analysis include performance appraisal, interviews,
questionnaires, tests, analysis of behaviour, informal talks, checklist, counseling, critical incidents,
recording, surveys, and observations.

Group analysis includes a number of techniques in which a group of well-informed employees discuss

different aspects of the organization, the employees, and the tasks to identify the major discrepancies in
achieving predetermined targets for each of them with a view to assessing training needs as distinguished
from other necessary changes for removing these discrepancies. The major techniques which are used in
this approach are brainstorming, buzzing, cardsorts, advisory committee, conferences, problem clinic, role
playing, simulation, task forces, workshops, and so forth.

Many problems exist in an organization, but some problems cannot be solved by training. After a
preliminary needs analysis, which gives probable causes and solutions, the results should be verified with
the concerned personnel of the organization to determine whether training is an appropriate action to
solve that problem.

Curriculum Development. This is the most important part in a training programme after a need for
training has been identified. The curriculum specifies what will be taught and how it will be taught. It
provides the framework and foundation of training. The first phase of curriculum development determines
what will be taught, that is, the training content.

Once training needs have been identified and training activities have been decided as part of the solution,
a needs analysis should be done to determine knowledge, skills, and attitude requirements and
performance deficiencies. The needs analysis procedure involves breaking down the "training problem"
into its basic parts in different successive phases to identify and understand the important components in
each phase. Ultimately it leads to identifying and understanding the training content. The training needs
analysis process can be divided into three distinct analytical phases: job analysis, task analysis, and
knowledge and skill-gap analysis.

A. Job analysis. Job analysis is a method of determining major areas of tasks where training may be
needed (see JA Worksheet). It involves the dissecting of a job into its component events or parts. This
analysis allows a trainer to better understand what an employee does in an organization. Job analysis
involves the "task identification" of a particular job (Wentling, 1992). The techniques used in task
identification include job questionnaire, interview, participant observation, work sampling, job audit, and
small-group discussion. The following steps may provide a guide for completion of job analysis:

1. Identify the job that is to be the subject of the analysis. This involves defining the focal point for the
job analysis. It may include the entire job of a group of employees or only a specific segment of their job.

2. Prepare a list of tasks which can be done following different approaches and methods. Four approaches
can be used to identify job tasks: (1) expertsidentify and list critical tasks, (2) observations and interviews
are conducted with employees, (3) meetings are held with group representatives, and (4) a tentative list of
task is reviewed by employees and their supervisors.

3. Verify the tasks. The draft list of tasks should be verified by experts, workers, and supervisors in the
analysis process. This can be done through expert review, small-group discussions, and inter views. When
the tasks are verified, a final list of job tasks is prepared.
4. Determine the frequency. The workers and super visors can fill in a form indicating how frequently
each task in a job is performed. Different scales such as "seldom," "occasionally," "weekly to monthly,"
"daily to weekly," and "daily" can be used to quantify the intensity of a task accomplished.

5. Determine the importance. Not all tasks are equally important to a job. An occasionally performed task
may be very important. Therefore, a relative importance rating is useful along with frequency rating. A
scale such as "marginally important," "moderately important," and "extremely important" may be used to
determine the relative importance of the job tasks.

6. Estimate the learning difficulty. An estimate of learning difficulty is another dimension of the job-task
analysis. It shows the trainer the employees' perception of difficulty, which may be different from the
trainer's own perception. A scale such as "easy," "moderately difficult," "very difficult," and "extremely
difficult" may be used to determine the difficulty indices of job tasks.

7. Calculate the total score. This can be done by simply adding the scores for frequency, importance, and
learning difficulty for each task. The column for total score in a worksheet indicates the priority tasks for
training if these are training problems.

8. Review the findings. The results of the job-task analysis should be discussed with significant people in
the training system, including government leaders, programme directors, and others interested in related
training.

B. Task analysis. The output of the job analysis is a list of broad job tasks, based on importance, learning
difficulty, and frequency of doing the task. Each task is a complex set of procedures in itself, and
therefore it needs further analysis to find out which specific segment of the of the task is critical in
designing a training programme (see Task Analysis Worksheet). To do this, it is necessary to follow a
method called task analysis, which is similar to job analysis.

Task analysis procedures include preparing a blank task analysis worksheet, writing down the name of the
job at the top of each sheet, and then making copies. Each of these forms will be used for breaking down
and analysing each of the most important job tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to write one important task
identified for training on each of the task analysis worksheets and to list all component parts of each task
on its respective task analysis worksheet. This is followed by the steps used for job analysis to find out
the frequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each step of the tasks. Then the score for each
component part is put in the "total score" column, and the results are discussed with concerned personnel
in the organization. The job analysis and task analysis processes are similar to each other, so the model
for both worksheets is the same.

The important difference between these two steps of analysis is that "the job analysis helps us identify
major blocks of content to include in training; the task analysis helps us understand what comprises an
individual block" (Wentling, 1992). Both are very important to the curriculum development process.
What needs to be taught and what steps are involved in the process are completed by these analyses and
comprise the major steps in curriculum development.

C. Knowledge and skill-gap analysis. The knowledge or skill-gap analysis is a process of determining the
training needs of individual employees in relation to the important tasks-steps or components of tasks
identified for training (see Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet). The skill-gap analysis determines how skilled
or proficient individual employees are on these tasks-steps or components, how much individuals differ
from desired performance, and whether or not they need training. It would be a waste of resources and
frustrating to the trainer and trainees to design and deliver training on topics and skills where the trainees
are already able and proficient. A priority list of the tasks identified for training according to the total
score in the job analysis is made. Then, the steps or components that were identified on each task analysis
worksheet are listed on the skill-gap analysis worksheet. This is followed by rating each step-component
in terms of the trainee's current proficiency on a scale of 1 to 5, as shown in the legend of the worksheet.
Identifying the steps-components that appear to have low proficiency is required because there is a gap
between what is desired and the current situation. After this, a review is done to ponder whether the gap
can be decreased or removed through training or whether training is the most appropriate method. There
may be some steps-components for which measures other than training are more appropriate. At this
stage, key personnel such as subject-matter specialists, supervisors, and extension-training experts should
discuss the findings before finalizing the curriculum. This helps to identify different perspectives and to
avoid unnoticed mistakes or biases in curriculum development.

The training needs analyses provide many things to a trainer. The analyses determine the training contents
and how deficient the trainees are in these contents, and the sequence of tasks provides the sequence of
training activity.

Job Analysis Worksheet

Job: Agriculture Extension Officer
Tasks: Frequency performeda Importanceb Learning difficultyb Total score Focus
1. Supervision 4 3 1 8 ...
2. Conducting training 4 3 3 10 yes
3. Planning programmes 2 3 2 7 ...
4. Research trial 2 2 1 5 ...
......... ... ... ... ... ...
......... ... ... ... ... ...
......... ... ... ... ... ...
a
 1 = Seldom b
 1 = Marginally important c 1 = Easy
2 = Occasionally 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately difficult
3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 3 = Very difficult
4 = Daily to weekly 4 = Extremely difficult
5 = Daily
Task Analysis Worksheet
Job: Agriculture Extension Officer
Task: Conducting training
Components/steps Frequency Performeda Importanceb Learning Score Total Focus
Difficultyc
Establishing rapport 5 3 1 9 -
Introducing the topic - - - - -
Presenting the subject 5 3 1 9 -
Maintaining sequence - - - - -
Maintaining eye contact - - - - -
Using A/V aids in time 5 3 4 12 yes
- - - -
- - - -
Summarizing the lecture 5 3 3 11 yes
a
1 = Seldom b
1 = Marginally important c1 = Easy
2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately difficult
3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 3 = Very difficult
4 = Daily to weekly 4 = Extremely difficult
5 = Daily
 Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet
Job: Agriculture Extension Officer
Task: Delivering lecture in VEWs training
Steps-components Level of proficiency Is proficiency a problem? Can problem be solved by training?
Establishing rapport 1 2 3 (4) 5 [] []
Introducing the topic 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [Y]
Presenting the subject 1 2 3 (4) 5 [] []
Maintaining sequence 1 2 (3) 4 5 [] []
Maintaining eye contact 1 (2) 3 4 5 [Y] [Y]
Using A/V aids in time 1 (2) 3 4 5 [] []
Supplying handouts 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [N]
......... 12345 [] []
Summarizing the lecture (1) 2 3 4 5 [Y] [Y]
1 = Cannot do at all
2 = Can do less than half of the task
3 = Can do more than half but less than total
4 = Can do total but cannot maintain time schedule
5 = Can do within time schedule

Selecting a Training Method

A training programme has a better chance of success when its training methods are carefully selected. A
training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the content so that the trainees achieve
the objective (Wentling, 1992). Selecting an appropriate training method is perhaps the most important
step in training activity once the training contents are identified. There are many training methods, but not
all of these are equally suitable for all topics and in all situations. To achieve the training objective, a
trainer should select the most appropriate training method for the content to involve the trainees in the
learning process. Four major factors are considered when selecting a training method: the learning
objective, the content, the trainees, and the practical requirements (Wentling, 1992). According to Bass
and Vaughan (1966), training methods should be selected on the basis of the degree to which they do the
following:

1. Allow active participation of the learners.

2. Help the learners transfer learning experiences from training to the job situation.
3. Provide the learners with knowledge of results about their attempts to improve.
4. Provide some means for the learners to be reinforced for the appropriate behaviour.
5. Provide the learners with an opportunity to practise and to repeat when needed.
6. Motivate the learners to improve their own performance.
7. Help learners increase their willingness to change.

These criteria indicate that a single training method will not satisfy the objectives of a training
programme.

A variety of training methods are available to a trainer. The most commonly used methods include:

1. Instructor presentation. The trainer orally presents new information to the trainees, usually through
lecture. Instructor presentation may include classroom lecture, seminar, workshop, and the like.

2. Group discussion. The trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing a topic.

3. Demonstration. The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a task, or shows an example of a
correctly completed task.

4. Assigned reading. The trainer gives the trainees reading assignments that provide new information.

5. Exercise. The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper or in real situations related to the
topic of the training activity.

6. Case study. The trainer gives the trainees information about a situation and directs them to come to a
decision or solve a problem concerning the situation.

7. Role play. Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional setting.

8. Field visit and study tour. Trainees are given the opportunity to observe and interact with the problem
being solved or skill being learned.

Implementation phase
Once the planning phase of a training programme is complete, then it is time to implement the course.
Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, or it is the process of putting a
training programme into operation.

The first step towards implementing a training programme is publicity. Most of the well-established
training centres develop training brochures which contain course descriptions, prepare an annual calendar
of training opportunities, and inform concerned organizations, agencies, or departments well ahead of
time about their training plans. Once the training centre and concerned organizations agree to implement
training, the next step is to arrange available resources such as sufficient funds for the course and
facilities for food, lodging, transportation, and recreation. All these resources need to be well managed
and coordinated to run the programme smoothly.

Evaluation phase
Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of activities in light of their
objectives. In evaluating an extension training programme, one needs to consider that most training
activities exist in a larger context of projects, programmes, and plans. Thus Raab et al. (1987, p. 5) define
training evaluation as "a systematic process of collecting information for and about a training activity
which can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of
various training components."

Kirkpatrick (1976) suggested four criteria to evaluate training programmes: (1) reaction, (2) learning, (3)
behaviour, and (4) results. Each criterion is used to measure the different aspects of a training
programme. Reaction measures how the trainees liked the programme in terms of content, methods,
duration, trainers, facilities, and management. Learning measures the trainees' skills and knowledge
which they were able to absorb at the time of training. Behaviour is concerned with the extent to which
the trainees were able to apply their knowledge to real field situations. Results are concerned with the
tangible impact of the training programme on individuals, their job environment, or the organization as a
whole.

Types of Evaluation
On the basis of the time dimension, evaluation may be classified as (1) formative evaluation and (2)
summative evaluation. Formative evaluation involves the collection of relevant and useful data while the
training programme is being conducted. This information can identify the drawbacks and unintended
outcomes and is helpful in revising the plan and structure of training programmes to suit the needs of the
situation. Summative evaluation is done at the end of the programme and makes an overall assessment of
its effectiveness in relation to achieving the objectives and goals.

Raab et al. (1987), however, classified evaluation into four major types: (1) evaluation for planning, (2)
process evaluation, (3) terminal evaluation, and (4) impact evaluation.

Evaluation for planning provides information with which planning decisions are made. Training contents
and procedures (methods and materials) are usually planned at this stage in order to choose or guide the
development of instructional aids and strategies. Process evaluation is conducted to detect or predict
defects in the procedural design of a training activity during the implementation phase (Raab et al., 1987).
Through this process the key elements of the training activities are systematically monitored, problems
are identified, and attempts are made to rectify the mistakes before they become serious. Process
evaluation is periodically conducted throughout the entire period of the programme.

Terminal evaluation is conducted to find out the effectiveness of a training programme after it is
completed. The objectives of terminal evaluation are to determine the degree to which desired benefits
and goals have been achieved, along with the causes of failure, if any. Impact evaluation assesses changes
in on-the-job behaviour as a result of training efforts. It provides feedback from the trainees and
supervisors about the outcomes of training. It measures how appropriate the training was in changing the
behaviour of participants in real-life situations.