„ The Open System Interconnection

Reference Modal (OSI-RM) was

developed by International Organization
for Standardization (ISO).
„ This is an excellent tool to understand
the communication process between
N/Wing devices and it provides a logical
framework of data transmission.
„ Used as teaching & troubleshooting tool.
 Objectives:
„ The OSI-RM describes how information
is transferred (exchanged) from one
machine to another.
„ Provides better Understanding of the
communication process/stages involve.
„ Separates complex functions into simple
components known as layers.
„ To develop a industry standard
independent of any platform.
The OSI-RM is broken into seven layers:

Layer 7 --- Application

Layer 6 --- Presentation
Layer 5 --- Session
Layer 4 --- Transport
Layer 3 --- Network
Layer 2 --- Data Link
Layer 1 --- Physical
„ Each layer is responsible for a specific
set of functions or roles to process data
when it is transported to other
networking device.
„ The first 4 layers Transport, Network,
Data Link & Physical layer are
concerned with the proper transmission
of data across Network.
„ Layers 5-7, Application, Presentation &
session are part of users application
and known as upper layer.
 Data encapsulation!
„ As the data moves down through the
layers, the various protocols operating
at each layer prepare & package it for
the transmission over the network &
this process is known as data
encapsulation.
„ Let’s see an example through what
stages data undergo and different
functions performed by each layer when
a PC transmit some information to a
remote PC.
 PC-A PC-B

Application Application

Presentation DATA Presentation

Session Session

Transport TCP-H DATA Transport

Network N/W-H TP-H DATA Network

Data Link D.L.-H N/W-H TP-H DATA Data Link

Physical 10011000110101010 (BITS) Physical

Terms used to define data at different layers:

DATA Appli+Presentaion+Session

SEGMENT Transport layer

PACKET Network layer

FRAME Data Link layer

BITS Physical layer

 Application layer
„ The top most Application layer provide
interface to users to interact with the
applications.
„ The interface can be a CLI or GUI based
application.
„ HTTP (web browsers), FTP, TELNET,
SMTP, E-MAIL are the few examples of
Application layer.
 Presentation layer
„ The Presentation, sixth layer defines
how data shall be represented to the
users in the Application.
„ Information (Data) can be represented
in different standard of text, graphics,
audio and video.
„ Text can be represented in different
format such as ASCII and EBDIC.
„ ASCII uses 7 bits to represent
characters whereas EBDIC uses 8 bits
to represent a character.
 Presentation Continued.....
„ Similarly, Graphics can also be
represented in different format such as
Bmp, Gif, Tiff, Jpeg, etc.
„ The Presentation layer act as translator
and make sure that data transferred
from one machine can be properly read
by the application layer of another
system.
„ Additionally presentation layer can also
provide encryption & compression.
 Session layer
„ The Session layer is fifth layer in the
OSI-RM. This layer is responsible for
setting & tearing down connections with
the help of transport layer.
„ The session layer also differentiate
multiple N/W connections to keep
different application’s data separate.
„ RPC,NFS & SQL are the examples of
session layer.
 Transport layer
„ The transport layer set up & maintain
sessions (logical connection) between
devices.
„ It provides connection oriented and
connection less services.
„ It implements flow control with the help
of windowing.
„ It multiplexes connections to allow
multiple applications to simultaneously
send and receive data.
„ TCP and UDP are two major protocols
working at transport layer.
 Connection oriented service
„ Connection oriented services provide
reliable delivery of data.
„ For reliable connection sequence number
and acknowledgements are maintained.
„ A three way handshake process is
require before any device can send or
receive data.
„ Once the 3 way handshake process is
completed, data can be transfer across
the connection.
„ Transmission control protocol (TCP) is
used to provide reliable delivery of data.
 Connection less services
„ Connection less services provide
unreliable delivery of data.
„ Unlike TCP, no connection is establish
first to exchange information.
„ No acknowledgement and sequence
numbers are maintained.
„ Transport layer uses User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) to provide connection
less services.
 Comparison between TCP & UDP
TCP UDP
„ Guaranteed data „ Best effort delivery
delivery.
„ Sequenced „ No sequence
„ Acknowledgement „ No acknowledgement
„ Large data transfer „ Small data transfer
„ Slow/reliable „ Fast/unreliable
„ Like Registered Mail „ Like ordinary Mail
 Flow control ???
„ Flow control means controlling traffic!
„ Flow control is used to make sure that
how much data shall be sent from source
to destination, so the source doesn’t
overflow receiving device buffer.
„ Overflow means loss of segment (data)
and the source has to resend all the
information that was dropped (lost)
because of the overflow.
„ Flow control can be implemented through
Windowing or ready not ready method.
 Windowing ???
„ Windowing is a method to implement
flow control.
„ TCP uses windowing to implement flow
control because it provides more
reliability as well as better efficiency.
„ Windowing has been defined in RFC-
793 & 813.
„ Let’s see how windowing works!
 Windowing, how does it work!
„ First a window size is negotiated
mutually between source & destination
at the time of session establishment.
„ It can be renegotiated during the life
time of the connection.
„ A window size specifies how many
segments (data) can be sent by source
at a time before source waits for an
acknowledgement from destination.
„ Once an acknowledgement is received
from destination source again starts
sending data.
„ Through the acknowledgement
destination tells the source what was
received and what was not and what is
expected next!
„ This process increases the reliability and
efficiency of the data transmission.
„ The window size can be re-negotiated
dynamically, decrease if TCP connection
experiences high numbers of errors.
„ And can also be increase to maximize
the throughput thus windowing provides
optimum utilization of N/W resources.
 TCP’s Multiplexing function
„ Multiplexing allows multiple applications to
simultaneously send and receive data
across number of connections.
„ TCP can setup & maintain multiple
connections from one device to other.
„ Because of multiple connections, a method
is required to differentiate between
different connections to ensure that
correct information is forwarded to correct
destination and to right Application.
„ TCP performs this function by using port or
socket numbers assigned to each
connections!
 How Multiplexing is performed!
„ When a source machine initiate a
connection using a specific application
to a remote device, each connection is
assigned a source port (SP) as well as
destination port (DP) number.
„ Port numbers assigned to applications
as destination port (DP) are known as
well known Port numbers
„ The well known port numbers can be in
the range of 0-1023 and are reserved
for the applications.
„ Theses numbers are assigned by IANA,
some well known port numbers used by
TCP/IP applications are:
„ FTP 20 & 21, TELNET 23, SMTP 25,
DNS 53, TFTP 69, HTTP 80, POP 110, etc.
„ TCP also assigns a source port number to
each connection at source itself, this
number can be any number up to 65536
except well known port numbers (1023).
„ Thus a combination of source & destination
port number is used to differentiate
between multiple connections, which in
turn helps to pass the correct information
at correct destination.
 TCP’s Header/Segment
Source port (16) bits Destination port (16) bits
Sequence number (32)
Acknowledgement number (32)
H/L (4) Reserve Code bits (6) Window (16)
(6)
Checksum (16) Urgent (16)
Options (0-32) bits
Data (Variable)
TCP’ segment composed of a header including Application data.
TCP header is 20 bytes in length excluding options bits.
 Header fields
Source port Port no. of application on the sending device.
Destination port Identifies which application is to receive information on
destination
Sequence No. Maintains reliability and sequence
Ack. No. Defines which segment is expected next
Header length This indicates from where the data begins
Reserved field Currently not used, set to zero
Code bits Use to setup and terminate connection (Control function)
Window size No. of segments to be sent and receive by destination host
Checksum Use to check the TCP header and data
Urgent field Indicates any urgent data in the segment
Data Application data, this value varies (not part of the TCP
header)
 Network layer - Layer 3
„ IP (Internet Protocol) is a major protocol
functioning at N/W layer.
„ IP looks at packets N/W No. to send
packets to the destination based on
routing table, this function is knows as
routing and performed by routers.
„ Connects different data link protocols
(Media type) such as Ethernet, Token- ring
& FDDI.
„ Examples of other N/W layer protocols are:
IP, IPX, AppleTalk etc.
„ Routers function at Network layer.
 Layer-3 Protocols
„ The Internet Protocol (IP) is just one
of the protocols that reside at layer-3.
„ Along with IP other important
protocols that function at layer 3
includes ARP, RARP and ICMP.
„ These protocols assist IP in
performing some important functions.
IP
ARP RARP ICMP
 Layer 3 Protocols
„ ARP: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
uses a local broadcast to discover (find)
MAC address of the devices with the
help of IP address.
„ RARP: RARP is reverse of the ARP, it
helps devices to find IP Address with
the help of MAC Address.
„ ICMP: The Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) is used to send error
and control messages to devices.
 Layer 3 Protocols
„ One of the most common implemen-
tations of ICMP is ping.
„ Ping uses a few ICMP messages such
as Reply, timeout or destination host
unreachable etc. to send messages to
source device.
„ PING: Packet Internet Groper is a basic
troubleshooting command used to test
whether a host or destination is
reachable or not.
 N/W Layer Header/Packet
Version Header Priority & Total length
(4 b) length (4) TOS (8b) (16b) bits
Identification (16) Flag (3) Fragment
offset (13)
TTL (8) Protocols (8) Header Checksum
Source IP Address (32) bits
Destination IP Address (32) bits
Options (0-32), if any
Data (Variable)
Version IP version number, like IPv4
Head Length Length of the IP header, 32 bits
Priority & TOS Defines how the data should be treated by
upper layers
Total Length Length of the packet, including header & data
Flags Is set if the datagram is a fragment
Fragment Offset Defines fragmentation & reassembly of data if
it is fragmented
TTL Sets the number of allowed hops the packet is
(Time-To-Live) allowed to travel
Protocols Identifies the protocol (like TCP, UDP, ICMP)
that was used to encapsulate data
Header CRC check on the IP header only
Checksum
Source IP Add. IP address of the source device
Dest. IP Add. IP address of the destination device
Data Application data, the size varies
 Data link layer- Layer 2
„ Data Link layer makes sure that the
messages are delivered to the proper
devices within LAN by using MAC address.
„ This layer is also responsible for taking bits
from physical layer & reassembling them
into frames.
„ Switch, Bridge & NIC works at Data link
layer.
„ Examples of Data link layer protocols for
LAN’s includes: Ethernet, IEEE 802.2 &
802.3, Token Ring & FDDI.
 Data L.L. Frame
Preamble Source MAC Destination Length MAC
(8 Bytes) Address MAC Add. (2 Bytes) layer
802.3
(6 Bytes) (6 Bytes)
802.2 LLC Encapsulated frame FCS LLC
Data (variable) (64–1500) (4 Bytes) 802.2

MAC-802.3: Media Access Control defines

MAC addressing and how frames are
placed & transmitted across media.
LLC-802.2: Logical Link Control is responsible
for Identifying which network layer has
created data and encapsulating them.
 Data Link Header-field
Preamble Identifies beginning of the 802.3
frame
Sou. MAC Add MAC address of the Source device
Des. MAC MAC address of the Destination
Add.
Length Defines the length of the frame
from length field to FCS field.
Data Data field is Variable (64–1500)
Bytes
FCS FCS is used to verify that the
frames was received intact (error-
free) at the destination.
 Physical layer – Layer 1
„ The first layer defines types of media
(cable) used to connect devices.
„ Types of connectors used such as RJ-45,
BNC, ST and SC.
„ Converts frames into bits.
„ Physical layer also specifies type of signal
scheme used to transmit data across the
physical media.
„ The signaling scheme defines the pattern
of electrical charges or light pulses use to
encode binary information
 Physical layer Continue….
„ Ethernet uses a signaling scheme called
Manchester encoding!
„ Hubs and repeater works at Physical
layer.

End of the OSI-RM

Continue …..
 TCP/IP!
„ The next few slides focuses on the
TCP/IP modal which is predated to the
OSI modal and provide a comparison
between TCP/IP & OSI-RM modal.
„ TCP/IP* is a suit of networking protocols
that provides communication across
interconnected computer networks with
diverse (different) hardware architectures
and various operating systems.

„ * TCP/IP is a collection of software/programs collectively

known as TCP/IP suit.
OSI RM TCP/IP
Application
Presentation Application

Session
Transport Transport
Network Internet
Data Link Data link
Physical Physical

A comparison between OSI-RM & TCP/IP modal

‰ TCP/IP modal defines how computers
communicate and conventions for
connecting networks and routing traffic
like OSI-RM.
„ In TCP/IP modal the Application,
Presentation & Session layer has been
Clubbed into single Application layer.
„ The internet & most corporate networks
today use TCP/IP protocol to carry data
for their networks.
„ It was first funded & developed by
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
„ And first interconnected N/W’s was called
Arpanet, later this N/W was evolved into
Internet!
Created & designed by M. ASIM KHAN
CCNA Trainer - Institute of Advance-
Computing & Management (IACM)
South Ex. N. Delhi
[email protected]