WEEK ONE

TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

1.1 Introduction
This topic will introduce the leaner to the concept of communication, its importance and
provide an understanding of how communication takes place. Types of communication and
barriers to effective communication are discussed to enable the leaner apply effective
communication skills in different situations.
Objectives
By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
i. Define communication
ii. Outline importance of Communication
iii. Describe the process of communication
iv. Explain how to overcome barriers to effective communication

1.2 Definition of communication

The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share, or to
make common (Weekley, 1967). Communication is defined as the process of understanding
and sharing meaning (Pearson & Nelson, 2000). Communication is about sharing of
information. Until you have shared information with another person, you have not
communicated it.
Communication therefore is:
i. The process of creating a shared understanding (Barker, 2000).
ii. It is the negotiation of shared meaning (Payne, 1998).
According to Adler and Rodman (2000) communication is the process of human beings
responding to the symbolic behaviour of other persons. Nyaga, Njoroge and Nyambuga (2015)
define communication as the process of exchanging information through speech, signals,
writing or behavior with another to create a common understanding.
From these we can deduce that communication is a process- it is not an instant activity but
takes place in stages.
The following are some characteristics of communication
 It is a process
 It is cyclic
 It dynamic
 It is contextual
 It is unending
 It is symbolic
 One cannot not communicate

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1.3 Importance of Communication
Communication is an important activity in all spheres of life. It necessitate the following
 sharing informing
 creating awareness
 education
 persuasion
 motivation
 surveillance
 entertainment
 socialization

1.4 The Communication Process

Communication is a continuous process that involves quite a number of steps.
i. The sender formulates the message that he wants to convey to the receiver.
ii. S/He encodes or translates his message. He may take the help of symbols, words, actions,
diagrams and pictures.
iii. S/He selects an appropriate channel or medium through which the message is to be
transmitted. It can be face to face communication, letters, radio, television, e-mail etc.
iv. The message is received by the receiver.
v. Received message is decoded by the receiver so that the receiver can draw the meaning of
the message.
vi. The receiver sends his feedback or response to the sender. In case of any confusion, the
same is conveyed and necessary clarification sought.
1.5 Elements of Communication
Seven elements of communication include
(1) Sender
(2) Message
(3) Encoding
(4) Channel
(5) Receiver
(6) Decoding
(7) Feedback
(8) Noise

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 1. Sender/Source:
The person who intends to convey the message with the intention of passing information and
ideas to others is known as sender or communicator or source. The source has an idea or thought
that s/he wants to communicate. In a public speaking situation, the source is the person giving
the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new information with the audience. The
speaker also conveys a message through his or her tone of voice, body language, and choice of
clothing. The speaker begins by first determining the message—what to say and how to say it.
2. Message
This is the subject matter of the communication which may be an opinion, attitude, idea,
feelings, views, orders, or suggestions.
3. Encoding- Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible, its
further passing requires use of certain symbols such as words, actions or pictures. The sender
translates the idea into signs and symbols such as pictures, signs or words that can be sent
through a channel. Conversion of the idea into these symbols is the process of encoding.
Encoding involves choosing the perfect symbols (words, signs, and pictures) to convey the
intended meaning. The choice of symbols is also influenced by the type of channel to be used
in communication.
4. Channel
A channel connects the sender to the receiver. The sender has a variety of channels to choose
from such as face to face, radio, newspaper, a computer, a telephone, a telegram, or a television.
The choice of a channel depends on the communication situation. For instance, when dealing
with confidential information, direct face-to-face interaction or a sealed letter are more
effective channels than a telephone conversation.
5. Receiver
Receiver is the person for whom the message is meant or who receives the message. The
receiver tries to understand the message in the best possible manner so as to achieve the
sender’s desired objectives.
6. Decoding
It is the process of extracting meaning from the symbols and signs sent by the sender. From
example if you see someone from a distance waving their hands at you, you must extract the
meaning of waving such as “bye bye” or ‘hi’ from the action of waving.
7. Feedback
After decoding the message, the receiver sends a response to the sender. Feedback is the
response given back to the sender by the receiver.
8. Noise
It is the hindrance in the process of communication. It can take place at any step in the entire
process. It reduces the accuracy of communication.
Examples of noise include:

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i. Ambiguous symbols that lead to faulty encoding
ii. A poor telephone connection
iii. An inattentive receiver
iv. Faulty decoding (attaching the wrong meaning to the message)
v. Prejudices such as attitude towards the subject or sender/speaker
vi. Gestures and postures that may distort the message.
vii. Noise within the environment, from a factory or vehicle.
viii. Poor or inappropriate language choice.

1.6 Communication Models

A model is a graphic representation designed to explain the way a variable works. It is a pattern,
plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure or workings of an object,
system, or concept. A model of communication offers a convenient way to think about it by
providing a graphical checklist of its various elements. Models of communication explain the
process of communication. There are three main models of communication
 Linear or transmission model of communication
 Interactive model of communication.
 Transactional model of communication.
Transmission models explain communication as a process of transfer of information from the
sender to the receiver. They present communication process as a linear process. Interactive
model of communication present communication as a cyclic process of interaction between
sender and receiver. On the other hand, transactional models explain communication as a
process of transaction and meaning sharing. Both the sender and the receiver are actively
involved in the communication process.
Some of these models were developed by communication scholars such as Harold Laswell,
Shannon and Weaver, Osgood and Schramm. Let us now discuss these models.
1.6. 1 Laswell Model (1948)
This is one of the early models of communication developed by the political scientist Harold
D. Laswell who looked at communication in the form of a question:
Who
Says What?
In Which Channel
To Whom
With What Effect
Laswell’s model present communication as a linear process.

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 Says In which With what
Who To whom
what? channel? effect?

Figure 1: Linear model of communication

‘Who’, raises the question of identification of the source of the message, ‘Says what’ is the
subject of analysis of the message. Communication channel is the medium through which the
message has travelled. ‘To whom’ deals with the characteristics of the receivers and audience
and ‘what effect’ can be seen as evaluation of the result or consequence of the message. These
essentially comprise the basic components of communication. This model implied that more
than one channel could carry a message. It was considered an oversimplified model which
implied the presence of a communicator and a purposive message which is transferred to the
receiver.
1.6.2. Shannon and Weaver Model (1949)
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver presented a mathematical model of communication with
five most significant elements. These are source, transmitter, receiver, destination and noise. It
is referred to as the transmission model of communication as it involves signal transmission
from sender to receiver.
In this model, the information source produces a message to be communicated out of a set of
possible messages. The message may consist of spoken or written word. The transmitter
converts the message into a signal suitable for the channel to be used. The destination is the
person or thing for whom/which the message is intended.
This model introduced the concepts of ‘noise’ i.e. disturbances or errors in transmission,
problems in accepting the signal (message), etc. This model was criticized for being based on
the hardware aspect developed for engineering problems and not for human communication.
Another criticism was that it did not take the element of feedback into account.
Both Laswell’s and Shannon and Weaver’s model are referred to as linear models of
communication. They present the communication process in a linear format (travelling in a
line). The linear models of communication held that a message flows only from the sources to
the recipient for instance from a radio to a listener.
Later on the interactive model was developed which takes into account bilateral
communication.
1.6.3. Charles Osgood’s Model (1954)
This model presents communication, as a dynamic process in which there is an interactive
relationship between the source and the receiver of the message (M). An individual engaged in
the communication process sends as well as receives messages and as such encodes, decodes
and interprets messages through a number of feedback mechanisms.
This model presents communication as a cyclic process characterised by the exchange of roles
between the sender and receiver. This model was found more applicable in interpersonal

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communication in which the source and receiver were physically present. For example when a
teacher teaches, the learners interact by raising queries, answering questions.

1.6.4. Schramm Model (1954)

His first model has a lot of similarity with Shannon and Weaver Model. Schramm visualized
the process of communication as a process of sharing of experience and commonality of
experience of those communicating. It introduced the concept of shared orientation between
sender and receiver. The source can encode and the destination can decode in terms of the
experience. In this model the accumulated experience of two individuals engaged in
communication is emphasized unlike in the linear models discussed earlier in which
interaction, feedback and sharing of experiences are not included. The source can encode and
the destination can decode in terms of the experience/s each has had. Communication becomes
easy as both the participants have a common field of experience. If the circles do not meet there
is an absence of such common experience which makes the process of communication difficult.
Schramm further elaborated his model by highlighting the frames of reference of the persons
engaged in communication. He took into account the wider social situations and the
relationships of both source and destination.
He maintained that when both have the same kind of situations, the message is selected,
received, and interpreted according to the frames of references in which noise and feedback
play important roles. He also included the idea of feedback by expressing that communication
is reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed. The weakness of this model
is that it is a less linear model, but it still holds good for bilateral communication. The complex,
multiple levels of communication among several sources that may take place simultaneously,
say in a group discussion, is not accounted for.
Then the transactional model of communication was developed. It includes the components
of linear model as well as the interactive ones. It emphasizes both the content, i.e. what is being
communicated (message) and includes the component of relationship of the source and the
recipient.
For Example: A teacher and learners will interact more if the content taught is based upon the
experience of the learners and also if the teacher is friendly and has a good relationship with
the learners, there will be more interactions.
1.6.5. Transactional Model of Communication
The distinction between source and receiver is blurred in conversational turn-taking, for
example, where both participants play both roles simultaneously.

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 Figure 2: Transactional Model of Communication

1.7 Types of Communication

Communication has been broadly categorized into the following four types:
i. Intrapersonal communication
ii. Interpersonal communication
iii. Group communication
iv. Mass communication.
1.7.1 Intrapersonal Communication
The word ‘intra’ denotes ‘within’. When we communicate within ourselves, it is intrapersonal
communication. This can take the form of thinking, analysing, dreaming or introspecting. Day
dreaming, self-talk and memories are all facets of intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal
communication is a kind of internal dialogue that takes place within an individual while
contemplating, conceptualizing and formulating our thoughts or ideas before we actually
express them. Due to individual differences, the levels of intrapersonal communication may
vary from one person to another. Writers, thinkers and philosophers generally devote more
time to intrapersonal communication.
1.7. 2 Interpersonal Communication
This type of communication takes place between two persons. It includes formal and informal
everyday exchanges, which may take place anywhere. The sender and the receiver may be able
to see each other closely, watch the facial expressions, postures, gestures, body language etc.
or may make them out from the tone and expressions when they communicate without seeing
each other, for instance over telephone. In interpersonal communication, the roles of the sender
and receiver become interchangeable. There are many sensory channels used and feedback is
immediate.
1.7.3. Group Communication
This takes place when people communicate in group. Group communication is an extension of
interpersonal communication which involves more than two individuals in the process of
communication. The groups can be both formal as well as informal depending on the type and
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objectives of communication but generally they have common interests and goals. Examples
include communication in academic groups, church, community or social welfare groups.
The communication process in a group depends on its size, nature, objectives and dynamics.
For example, communication in a small group with members at the same place will be close to
interpersonal communication as the receiver can see the sender of the message closely and
follow his/her facial expressions, body language etc. S/he can pose questions and get the doubts
clarified and thus obtain feedback. However, when the size of the group increases, there is less
scope for understanding and deciphering the movements, body language and other such things
about the speaker. The sender may not follow the response of the individual receiver and thus
the feedback is reduced.
Group communication is useful in taking collective decision on a problem, an issue or a matter
of common interest. However, all members of a group may not be able to freely participate in
deliberations, as some may be dominant speakers while others too shy or reluctant to express
themselves thus affecting a free flow of communication. All these factors have greater
implications in group communication. Classroom communication also falls under group
communication in which these factors play an important role.

1.7.4. Mass Communication

This type of communication is different from all the three types discussed so far. In mass
communication, the communicator is separated from the audience in terms of time and place.
Communication takes place simultaneously with the help of an electronic device, in which an
institution is involved. These electronic devices are known as mass media such as print
(newspapers, magazines, books, and journals), radio, television, the Internet, etc. The audience
is ‘mass’ i.e. it has a heterogeneous profile, are unknown to each other and located in
widespread locations. Feedback in mass communication is considered to be weak and delayed
as compared to group and interpersonal communication. Today with developments in the field
of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), communication through electronic
media may be interactive and feedback may not be delayed.

1.8 Barriers to effective communication

We have referred to the term ‘Noise’ while discussing the models and elements of
communication in the previous sections. Barrier or Noise is a term used to express any
interference in the process of communication.
Successful communication takes place when the message is conveyed undiminished with least
distortion. However, it is not always possible as a number of barriers make the process of
communication complex. Barriers could be physical, psychological, cultural, linguistic
(semantic), technical or due to information overload. Let us try to understand these barriers and
how these can be minimized for effective communication.
a. Physical barriers: If the source is not visible to the receiver and s/he is not comfortable in
the environment, it may create barriers in communication. Geographical distance may also
create barriers, as people may like to communicate with one another but due to physical

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distances they may not be able to do so. For example communicating with an expert who is not
available in the same areas/ regions may experience physical barrier. However, geographical
distance has been overcome to a large extent by improved technology. This notwithstanding,
technological challenges such as poor network connectivity are considered as barriers to
communication.
b. Psychological barriers: Due to individual differences, attitudes, interest and motivation
levels, we perceive things and situations differently. Apart from this, the varied levels of
anxiety, inherent prejudices and previous experiences also create barriers in communication.
Studies have revealed that due to the process of selective perception, selective recall and
selective retention, we perceive, retain as well as recall a message selectively thus creating
barriers in communication. Our attitudes towards speaker may hinder our understanding of
what they say.
c. Socio-cultural barriers: In communication process, socio-cultural barriers also operate. To
illustrate, in the Indian context, some women may not like to discuss their health related
problem with a male health worker. Similarly, some issues may be perceived as personal and
not fit for discussion outside the realm of family, thus creating barriers. Some societies are less
vocal which may affect their level of communication with those from other cultures who are
more vocal or aggressive in behaviour.
d. Linguistic barriers: During the process of communication, faulty expressions, poor
translation, verbosity, ambiguous words and inappropriate vocabulary create barriers.
Moreover, words and symbols used to communicate facts and information may mean different
things to different persons. This is due to the fact that meanings are in the minds of people who
perceive and interpret meanings in different ways according to their individual frame of mind.
Technical barriers: While using technology, technical barriers also make the process of
communication complex. When audio quality is poor or video signals are weak, the message
may not clearly reach the target group. Erratic power supply also creates barriers in
communication.
e. Information overload: At times too much information is imparted which we may not able
to comprehend and assimilate, thus creating a barrier in communication. To illustrate, in a
meeting when a speaker provides information at a fast pace for considerable period of time
many of the issues and concepts may get lost at the end. While using media, this type of barrier
can greatly affect the level of comprehension and utilization of the message. Hence, great care
needs to be taken while deciding the amount of information in a communication transaction.
1.10 Strategies for effective communication
In order to achieve the objective of communication, the process must be complete. The sender
should ensure their message is encoded in the right manner using appropriate symbol(s) that
can be decoded by the receiver. Additionally, communication is said to be effective if the
receiver decodes the meaning as intended by the sender.
Some of the ways of facilitating effective communication could be:
a. Clarity of message: In any type of communication, it is important that the objective of
communication is well defined; the level of language is kept simple, brief and clear. It has been
found that most complex ideas can be expressed coherently, completely and cogently when

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presented using short and simple sentences. Too many conjunctions make a sentence complex
and difficult to understand. Proper phrasing, punctuation, emphasis, voice modulation
facilitates clarity of message and increases the impact of communication.
b. Reinforcement of ideas: For clarity of the message, an element of redundancy needs to be
introduced. Difficult or technical words and expressions need to be substituted with simpler
expressions and words of everyday usage. However, care needs to be taken to see that the
message does not become repetitive and boring. The level of audience needs to be constantly
kept in mind.
c. Appropriate channel: Depending upon the type and objective of communication, selection
of appropriate channel is crucial for the success of communication. The use of technology also
helps to overcome geographical barriers. However, for selecting a particular channel,
especially the more expensive one, some questions need to be constantly asked such as why
this channel? Is there any specific need? Will it help to meet the objective of communication?
Is it possible to avoid unnecessary investment? Many a time, a simple channel may convey a
message more effectively as compared to the more glamorous ones.
d. Proper environment: Effective communication depends on the environment where
communication takes place. For example away from physical noise, proper seating posture and
or arrangements, and safety of the speaker and audience which limits psychological barriers.
This is especially conducive in overcoming some of the physical barriers discussed above.
e. Feedback: Feedback is an integral component of any communication activity. Regular feed-
back at appropriate levels facilitates understanding of the needs and views of the receiver/s. It
helps to bridge the gaps, if any, in the communication approach and improves the process of
communication.

1.11 Revision questions

1. Discuss how context influence communication.
2. Observe two people involved in communication. Describe their communication. See if
you can find all eight elements of communication and provide an example for each one.
3. What assumptions are present in transactional model of communication?
4. Discuss the weaknesses of linear model of communication.

FURTHER READING
1. Muchiri, M. (1993). Communication Skills. Nairobi Longman.
2. Mutua, R.W., (1992). Study and Communication Skills. Macmillan Press Limited. London
3. Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding and sharing.
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

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