➔ LESSON 1: PHILOSOPHY.

- Used to describe a behavior which conforms to

➢ Came from the Greek words, Philo and Sophia accepted standards.
which mean love and wisdom respectively. Unethical
➢ Literally means love of wisdom - Description of an attitude, behaviour, conduct
➢ Systematic study of ideas and issues, a or act which don’t follow the code of ethics.
reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest Freedom
for comprehensive understanding of the world, - man’s ability to act in accordance to his will
a study of principles and conduct, and much and/or preferences.
more. - This is synonymous with liberty.
Right
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY - Something to which one has a just claim,
1. Epistemology such as a piece of property, to which one is
- Addresses philosophical problems surrounding justly entitled.
the theory of knowledge. Obligation
- concerned with the definition of knowledge and - Duty/Responsibility to which one is bound.
related concepts, the sources and criteria of
knowledge, the kind of knowledge possible,
and the degree to which each is certain.
2. Metaphysics ➔ LESSON 2: HUMAN ACTS & ACTS OF MAN.
- Concerned with the nature of ultimate reality. x Man
3. Aesthetics ➢ is a rational animal.
➢ Is composed of body and soul.
- Concerned with the essence and perception of
TYPES OF SOULS:
beauty and ugliness.
a. Nutritive: for nourishment (present among
4. Cosmology plants, animals, and men)
- Study of the universe as a whole including its b. Sensible: for senses and emotions
past and its future. (present among animals and men
5. Social and Political Philosophy c. Rational: for reasoning (present in men)
- Concerned with the nature of legitimate
authority, the nature of society, and the relation ➢ has the faculties, freewill and intellect.
between the individual, the community, and the *by faculties refers to capacities. Therefore,
state. man is capable of thinking and decision-
6. Logic making.
- Concerned with the nature of legitimate
authority, the nature of society, and the relation
> HUMAN ACTS and ACTS OF MAN: Is there a
between the individual, the community, and the difference?
state.
7. Ethics Human Acts Acts of Man

> What is ETHICS? ⮚ Voluntary in nature ⮚ Involuntary in

- Came from “ethous” or “ethos” which means nature
use, custom, way of behaving, or character.
⮚ An act proceeding ⮚ Action merely
- A practical science of the morality of
human conduct/act. from man’s happening in the body
- The study of what is right and wrong in deliberate free will. without the
human behavior in the pursuit of a good life. mind’s awareness or
- The morality of human acts. control of the will.
- a practical science of the morality of human EX. dancing, EX. heartbeat,
conduct. speaking, alms digestion, metabolism,
- The good things that we should pursue and giving, doing crimes, breathing, blinking, etc.
the bad things that we should avoid. etc.

> Additional terminologies: The following are essential attributes for an act to be
Morality a human act:
- the quality of human act. 1. It must be performed by a conscious agent
- the quality of goodness or badness is a human act. who is aware of what he is doing and of its
Ethical consequences. Children below the age of
 reason, the insane, the senile, are considered 1. Perfect voluntariness. The person fully knows
incapable of acting knowingly. and intends the act. It is perfect voluntariness when a
2. It must be performed by an agent who is student cheats during an examination to get a
acting freely, that is, by his own volition and passing score.
powers. An action done under duress and
against one’s will is not entirely a free action. 2. Imperfect voluntariness. The person acts without
3. The agent wilfully performs the act. fully realizing what he does, or without fully intending
the act. A drunken man for example might act
> Kinds of Human Acts: irrationally without fully knowing what he’s doing.
Elicited acts are those which are performed by the 3. Conditional voluntariness. A person does the act
will and are not bodily externalized. They are as out of certain circumstances beyond his control. A
follows: child, who is intimidated by his mother to study his
1. Wish
lesson, acts with conditional voluntariness.
- A disposition of the will aspiring for something.
EX. “ I wish for a trip to Manila.”; “I wish that 4. Simple voluntariness. The person does the act
no Filipino would die of hunger.” wilfully whether he likes to do it or not. Examples may
2. Intention/ Voluntariness be polishing the floor, undergoing treatment in a
- Purposive tendency of the will towards a rehabilitation center, not taking prohibited drugs, etc.
realizable thing.
EX. “I intend a trip to Manila.”; “I am going to > Principles governing the voluntariness of a
vote for our officials this May.”
human act:
3. Consent
- Acceptance of the will of the means 1. Principle of imputability (evil indirectly
necessary to do the intention. willed)
EX. “I’ll go to Manila by boat.”; “I’ll renew my 2. Principle of imputability of a two-fold
voter registration in order to vote this May.” effect.
4. Election Was it morally right to drop the atomic bomb
- Selection by the will of the precise means to which would shorten the war but which would
be employed in carrying out the intention.
destroy numerous innocent lives? Is it morally
EX. “I’ll buy the boat ticket and board the ship
earlier.”; “I’ll go to the precinct and cast my right to do an act which entails bad as well as
vote before lunch.” good consequences?
5. Use The answer is YES, but the following should
- Will’s employment of powers to carry out its be remembered:
intention by the means elected. a. The act in itself should be good, or at
EX. “I’ll go to the precinct by walking.” least morally indifferent;
6. Fruition
b. The evil effect should not be directly
- the enjoyment of the thing willed and done.
EX. “I’ll enjoy the result of the election.” intended, but morally allowed to
happen as a regrettable side issue;
c. There should be a reason sufficiently
> Imputability of Human Acts:
- means that the person performing the act is grave in doing the act; and
liable for such an act. d. The evil effect should not outweigh the
Ex. you went to SM for leisure despite the good effect. (If the evil effect is
peak of the pandemic thus, if you acquire the greater, then the intention and the
virus, you cannot blame the others for that. motive in doing the act would be for
evil rather than for good.)

> MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS

➔ LESSON 3: VOLUNTARINESS
➢ It came from the Latin word “voluntas,” ⮚ Perfect voluntariness, which is the ideal for a
referring to the will. Without voluntariness, an
man to act deliberately, is not always possible.
act is not a human act but rather, just a mere
act of man. Sometimes, we act because emotions hold
➢ Voluntariness may be perfect, imperfect, sway, or our impulse tells us to do so. There
conditional, and simple.
 are factors which influence man’s inner one’s accountability is diminished.
b. Consequent passion increases accountability. A
disposition toward certain actions and those
person who does a rape due to being sexually
are called the modifiers of human acts. aroused for reading pornographic magazine is
still fully accountable in any way.

1. Ignorance. It is the absence of knowledge which a 3. Fear. It is the disturbance of the mind of a person
person ought to possess. It may be vincible, invincible, who is confronted by impending danger or harm to
or affected ignorance. Vincible ignorance is that himself or his loved ones.
which we can be easily reminded or informed of just Principle regarding fear.
like a street direction when one is just new in a place, a. Acts done because of intense fear or panic are
or a person’s name when one has newly met his involuntary thus, has no accountability. A
companion. Invincible ignorance on the other hand is person who jumps in a building out of panic is
that which we lack awareness of possessing it or, even involuntary does, may not be considered as a
if one is aware of such ignorance, he still lacks the suicide.
means of rectifying it. E.g. a cook may not be aware
that the food he is serving is contaminated. Affected
ignorance is which a person keeps by positive effort 4. Violence. Refers to any physical force exerted on a
just to escape responsibility, like refusing to read a person to make him act against his will.
memo to be exempted from the requirements Principles regarding violence:
therein. a. Actions performed by a person who is subjected
Principles involving ignorance: to violence, to which reasonable resistance has
been offered, are involuntary and are not
a. invincible ignorance renders an act accountable. A person who is tortured to make
involuntary. A cook is not liable if he is not him not tell the truth, is not morally
aware that the food he is serving is accountable if he tells a lie.
contaminated. b. Elicited acts, or those which are performed by
b. Vincible ignorance lessens the voluntariness the will alone, are not subjected to violence and
and corresponding accountability over the thus, are voluntary.
act. A waiter who suspects that the food is
contaminated has the moral obligation to 5. Habits. The performance of certain acts with ease.
ascertain the fact. Principles regarding habits:
c. Affected ignorance decreases voluntariness a. actions done by habits are voluntary in cause,
but increases accountability over the act. A unless a reasonable effort is made to counteract
child who refuses to be guided by his parents the habitual inclination. A heavy-drinker is
has only himself to blame for his accountable for whatever consequence there
wrongdoings. may be for being an alcoholic.

2. Passion or Concupiscence. The tendencies towards

desirable objects, or away from undesirable objects. It
may be antecedent or consequent passions. ➔ LESSON 4: NORMS OF HUMAN ACTS
Antecedent is that which precedes an act. It is the
I. Laws
reason behind such acts like sweet and lengthy
- an “ordinance of reason” because it is a
conversations because of love, or overnight cries
rational deliberation intended to guide men
because of emotional pain. Consequent passions are
intentionally aroused and kept thus, considered to be towards what is good for them.
voluntary. Consequent passion is the result of doing - Accdg to ST. THOMAS AQUINAS,
such act, like being sexually aroused because of ● Promulgated
reading pornographic magazines. ● For the common good
Principles involving passion: ● Implemented by Authorities
II. Conscience
a. Antecedent passion renders voluntariness but
lessens accountability over the resultant act. A - came from the Latin word “conscientia” which
“crime of passion” is still voluntary but since means “trial of oneself”.
passion interferes on the freedom of the will,
 - Practical judgment of reason upon an ➔ CRITERIA IN EVALUATING MORALITY:
individual act as good and to be performed, 1. The Act Itself
or as evil and to be avoided. - Whether the action itself is good or
- TYPES OF CONSCIENCE: bad
1. Correct / True conscience EX. stealing is non-moral, being
2. Erroneous / False conscience charitable if moral, and eating chips
a. Inculpable conscience are neither good nor bad, amoral.
b. Certain conscience 2. End (purpose)
3. Certain conscience - The goal or purpose of the act.
- the person is sure of his certain - Take note, an act is only good if and
decisions only if its intention is also good
4. Doubtful conscience otherwise, it becomes evil.
- Unable to form definite judgment EX. If one helps the needy for publicity
5. Scrupulous conscience or popularity, his act of giving (which is
- Extremely afraid of committing supposed to be moral) becomes non-
mistakes. moral due to the evil intention for the
- meticulous and wants proof act.
before it acts. 3. Circumstance
6. Lax conscience - The surrounding factor affecting one’s
- Not bothered by the distinction choice.
between good and evil. - Take note, an act only becomes
good if the act itself, the end, as
> MORAL & NON-MORAL STANDARDS: well as the circumstance, are also
x Morality good.
- is defined as the principle of what is EX. Having a boyfriend/girlfriend with
considered to be right or wrong, of knowing no bad intention but despite being
what is good from what is bad. prohibited by your parents in doing so
x Standard (evil circumstance), becomes non-
- Viewed as the set of norms or practices that moral.
measure a series of possible merits or EX. Increasing the price of facemask
actions. due to very high demand amid the
- TYPES OF STANDARD OF MORALITY: : pandemic becomes non-moral.
a. Moral Standards:
- viewed as a set of principles x. Reasonableness becomes the actual backbone
that serve as the actual that makes an act ethical. Whatever is moral is
parameters or guides of how always reasonable and whatever is non-moral is non-
an action can be judged. reasonable.
b. Non-moral EX. It is reasonable to ask for assistance when
- are expressed and/or needed thus, the act is moral.
exhibited if there are EX. It is non-reasonable to steal when in need of
inadequacies concerning the money thus, the act is non-moral.
measures of how an action is
judged. ➔ ETHICAL DILEMMAS:
- when a person uses his reason - Upon reaching a certain age, a person
in evaluating an action while realizes that their world is not perfect; That
the latter is the complete the world is populated by competing beliefs,
obverse, hence is arbitrary. ideologies, and systems. What you thought to
c. Amoral be true becomes unquestionable, let long
- Neither good NOR Bad untrue.
 - Kant calls this antinomies, where one can’t - Supervisory behavior, peer group
actually go right or wrong. norms and behavior, and policy
● This leads us to investigate other statements and written rules.
things such as the circumstance within 3. Structural (Institutions, Operative, and
AND around which the dilemma is Theoretical Paradigms)
situated, the balancing of positions - Government laws and regulations,
that tend to argue towards the societal norms and values, and
extreme, and probable response - if it competitive climate in an industry.
is possible - to the conflict. EX. universal health care
- Dilemma is expected of any kind of ethical
stance. It is expected because what fuels
one’s idea of what is right or wrong is in
no way the same. But the fact that there is ➔ LESSON 5: FOUNDATIONS OF MORALITY
conflict proves that there can be a way to at How does a man, as a species, differ from other
least solve it, let alone a compromise. species?
- In an extreme sense, however, dilemma also In this lesson, it shall be established that man’s
prepares us to decide against the backdrop of nature is goodness, and that rationality and
a scarcity of choices. In every way, there is impartiality would provide the real foundation of
always a stance much better than the rest. morality.

> NATURE OF AN DILEMMA: x Reason

1. One finds oneself at a certain crossroads - Is the ability of the mind to think, understand,
where the elementary distinction of right and and form judgments by the process of logic.
wrong is put on hold, one’s choice is as good - It is an innate ability and exclusive human
or as bad as any other. ability that utilizes new or existing information
as bases to consciously make sense out of
different from choosing what is the best play things while applying logic.
from other plays, if we were to adopt this - Accdg to “Kant and Hume on Morality,”
position, each play from all other plays is as Reason and experience play an important role
good in possible equal measures. An ethical in moral judgment.
dilemma then conceals out the often wrongly - Accdg to De Guzman Et al. (2017)
perceived notion that the rules should be Reason spells the difference of moral
applied, automatically, to all situations. A judgment from the mere expressions of
dilemma is an exception. personal experience.
EX. IF AFTER EATING, SOMEONE SAYS, “I
2. An evil act can never be a good act. This LIKE A SWEET CAKE,” HE IS NOT
point can turn to a number of important REQUIRED TO SUPPORT IT WITH GOOD
consequences. Most especially, it leads to an REASONS FOR THAT IS A STATEMENT
understanding that an act that begins as evil ABOUT HIS/HER PERSONAL TASTE AND
can never be turned into a good act, no NOTHING MORE.
matter how good the circumstance or the end
x Rationality
> LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS: - has always been considered as a power of
1. Individual (The person) man that separates himself from the rest of
- Family influences, religious values, the species.
personal standards, and personal - It is the capacity to reason proving that a
needs. person’s desire for truth is an in-born ability.
2. Organizational (Business, Medical, and - involves a movement from something
Public Sector) mental and/or logically informed to
ethically founded.
 “Thus, by nature, at the heart of a person is
goodness since man is naturally informed of
what is ethical brought about by his
rationality.”

HOWEVER!
Despite man’s rationality, it must be noted that any
ethical decision is also surrounded by a subjective
stance, and hence, his decision or choice
becomes personal. This is where impartiality enters.

x Impartiality
- considered as another side to the foundation
of morality
- involves a man’s decision to always aim to
decide for what is just, equal, and
balanced weighing of things that are
devoid of any biased judgments or pre-
judgment.
- Many ethicists supposed that from the
impartial point of view, properly conceived,
some persons count as more significant, at
least in certain ways. A virtuous and
respectable religious leader may be more
significant than a mere maid; so, in an
emergency (say, a building on fire) the decent
religious leader ought to be rescued first. The
reason, nonetheless, is not that the religious
leader is intrinsically more significant; rather,
it is that he makes a greater contribution to
society (De Guzman et al. 2017).

AS STATED IN THE ARTICLE “REASON AND

IMPARTIALITY AS MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR
MORALITY,”