Fraction of load of composite carried by fibers as a function of fiber volume fraction

for constant fiber to matrix moduli ratio

1 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Longitudinal Young’s modulus as function of fiber volume fraction and comparison
with experimental data points for a typical glass/polyester lamina

2 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Transverse Young’s modulus as a function of fiber volume fraction for constant
fiber to matrix moduli ratio.

3 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Theoretical values of transverse Young’s modulus as a function of fiber volume
fraction for a Boron/Epoxy unidirectional lamina (Ef = 414 GPa, νf = 0.2, Em = 4.14
GPa, νm = 0.35) and comparison with experimental values. Figure (b) zooms figure
(a) for fiber volume fraction between 0.45 and 0.75. (Experimental data from
Hashin, Z., NASA tech. rep. contract no. NAS1- 8818, November 1970.)

4 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Theoretical values of in-plane shear modulus as a function of fiber volume fraction and
comparison with experimental values for a unidirectional glass/epoxy lamina (Gf =
30.19 GPa, Gm = 1.83 GPa). Figure (b) zooms figure (a) for fiber volume fraction
between 0.45 and 0.75.

5 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Theoretical values of transverse Young’s modulus as a function of fiber volume
fraction and comparison with experimental values for boron/epoxy unidirectional
lamina (Ef = 414 GPa, νf = 0.2, Em = 4.14 GPa, νm = 0.35). Figure (b) zooms figure (a) for
fiber volume fraction between 0.45 and 0.75.

6 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Theoretical values of in-plane shear modulus as a function of fiber volume fraction
compared with experimental values for unidirectional glass/epoxy lamina (Gf = 30.19
GPa, Gm = 1.83 GPa). Figure (b) zooms figure (a) for fiber volume fraction between
0.45 and 0.75.

7 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Elasticity Approach
▪ In addition to the strength of materials and semi-empirical equation
approaches, expressions for the elastic moduli based on elasticity are
also available

▪ Elasticity accounts for equilibrium of forces, compatibility, and Hooke’s

law relationships in three dimensions; the strength of materials
approach may not satisfy compatibility and/or account for Hooke’s law in
three dimensions, and semi-empirical approaches are just as the name
implies — partly empirical

▪ The elasticity models described here are called composite cylinder

assemblage (CCA) models

8 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
▪ In a CCA model, we assume the fibers are circular in cross-section,
spread in a periodic arrangement, and continuous
▪ Then the composite can be considered to be made of repeating
elements called the representative volume elements (RVEs)
▪ The RVE is considered to represent the composite and respond the
same as the whole composite does

9 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
▪ Longitudinal Young’s Modulus, E1
• To find the elastic moduli along the fibers, we will apply an axial load, P, in
direction 1

• From the above eqns.:

• Assuming the response of a cylinder is axisymmetric, the equilibrium equation

in the radial direction is given by,

…………………………..(E)

10 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
• The normal stress–normal strain relationships in polar coordinates, r–θ–z, for
an isotropic material with Young’s modulus, E, and Poisson’s ratio, ν, are given
by,

• Note that the shear stresses and shear strains are zero in the r–θ–z coordinate
system for axisymmetric response

11 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
• The strain displacement equations for axisymmetric response are

• Substituting the strain-displacement equations in the stress–strain equations

and noting that ∈z = ∈1 everywhere gives

………….(F)

12 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
• Substituting Equation (F) in the equilibrium equation (E) gives

………………(G)

• The solution to the linear ordinary differential equation is found by assuming

• Substituting the expression of u in Equation (G) and proceeding we will get the
following solution for a cylinder with an axisymmetric response,

13 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
• Thus, the radial displacement, uf and um, in the fiber and matrix cylinders,
respectively, can be assumed of the form

• However, because the fiber is a solid cylinder and the radial displacement uf is
finite, Bf = 0; otherwise, the radial displacement of the fiber uf would be
infinite. Thus,

………………(H)

14 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
• Differentiating equation (H),
………………(I)

• Using Equations (I) in Equation (F), the stress–strain relationships for the fiber are

15 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
• and the stress–strain relationships for the matrix are

Now we need to solve for the unknown constants Af, Am, Bm, and ε1
The following four boundary and interface conditions are used to do so

16 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Elasticity Approach
• 1. The radial displacement is continuous at the interface, r = a,

• 2. The radial stress is continuous at r = a:

• 3. Because the surface at r = b is traction free, the radial stress on the outside of matrix, r = b, is zero:

17 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Elasticity Approach
• 4. The overall axial load over the fiber-matrix cross-sectional area in direction 1 is the applied
load, P,

• The resulting solution:

18 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
▪ Major Poisson’s Ratio, 𝜗12 :

▪ In Plane Shear Modulus, G12:

19 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach
▪ Transverse Young’s Modulus, E2:

Where,

Bulk modulus of composite,

To find G23, solve,

20 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach

21 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elasticity Approach

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▪ Comparison of Elastic moduli for glass/epoxy composite with 70%
fiber volume fraction

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Elastic Moduli of Lamina with Transversely
Isotropic Fibers
▪ Glass, aramids, and graphite are the three most common types of fibers used in
composites
▪ Among these, aramids and graphite are transversely isotropic
▪ From the definition of transversely isotropic materials, such fibers have five elastic moduli
If L represents the longitudinal direction along the length of the fiber
and T represents the plane of isotropy perpendicular to the
longitudinal direction, the five elastic moduli of the transversely
isotropic fiber are
EfL = longitudinal Young’s modulus
EfT = Young’s modulus in plane of isotropy
νfL = Poisson’s ratio characterizing the contraction in the plane of
isotropy when longitudinal tension is applied
νfT = Poisson’s ratio characterizing the contraction in the longitudinal
direction when tension is applied in the plane of isotropy
GfT = in-plane shear modulus in the plane perpendicular to the plane
of isotropy

24 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Elastic Moduli of Lamina with Transversely
Isotropic Fibers
▪ The elastic moduli using strength of materials approach for lamina with
transversely isotropic fibers are

The expressions are similar to those

of a lamina with isotropic fibers. The
only difference is that appropriate
transverse or longitudinal properties
of the fiber are used.

25 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Five ultimate strength parameters for a unidirectional lamina:
• Longitudinal tensile strength, (𝜎1𝑇 )ult

• Longitudinal compressive strength, (𝜎1𝐶 )ult

• Transverse tensile strength, , (𝜎2𝑇 )ult

• Transverse compressive strength, (𝜎2𝐶 )ult

• In-plane shear strength (τ12)ult

▪ We will determine how these parameters can be found from the individual
properties of the fiber and matrix by using the mechanics of materials
approach

26 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina

▪ The strength parameters for a unidirectional lamina are much harder to

predict than the stiffnesses because the strengths are more sensitive to
the material and geometric non-homogeneities, fiber–matrix interface,
fabrication process, and environment

▪ For example, a weak interface between the fiber and matrix may result in
premature failure of the composite under a transverse tensile load, but
may increase its longitudinal tensile strength

▪ For these reasons of sensitivity, some theoretical and empirical models are
available for some of the strength parameters

▪ Eventually, the experimental evaluation of these strengths becomes

important because it is direct and reliable

27 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Tensile Strength, (𝜎1𝑇 )ult
A simple mechanics of materials approach model is presented assuming that
• Fiber and matrix are isotropic, homogeneous, and linearly elastic until failure
• The failure strain for the matrix is higher than for the fiber, which is the case
for polymeric matrix composites. For example, glass fibers fail at strains of 3
to 5%, but an epoxy fails at strains of 9 to 10%.
Because the fibers carry most of the
load in polymeric matrix composites, it
is assumed that, when the fibers fail at
the strain of (εf)ult, the whole
composite fails. Thus, the composite
tensile strength is given by,

28 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Tensile Strength, (𝜎1𝑇 )ult
• Once the fibers have broken, can the composite take more load?

• The stress that the matrix can take alone is given by (σm)ult(1 – Vf)

• Only if this stress is greater than (𝜎1𝑇 )ult it is possible for the composite to
take more load

• The volume fraction of fibers for which this is possible is called the
minimum fiber volume fraction, (Vf)minimum, and is given by

29 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Tensile Strength, (𝜎1𝑇 )ult
▪ It is also possible that, by adding fibers to the matrix, the composite will have
lower ultimate tensile strength than the matrix
▪ In that case, the fiber volume fraction for which this is possible is called the
critical fiber volume fraction, (Vf)critical, and is

30 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina

▪ Longitudinal Tensile Strength, (𝜎1𝑇 )ult

▪ Experimental evaluation:
• The general test method recommended for tensile strength is the ASTM test
method for tensile properties of fiber–resin composites (D3039)

• Six to eight 0o plies that are 12.5 mm

(1/2 in.) wide and 229 mm (10 in.) long
• The specimen is mounted with strain
gages in the longitudinal and transverse
directions
• Tensile stresses are applied on the
specimen at a rate of about 0.5 to 1
mm/min (0.02 to 0.04 in./min)
• A total of 40 to 50 data points for stress
and strain is taken until a specimen fails

31 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Stress–strain curve for a [0]8 laminate under a longitudinal tensile load

32 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Tensile Strength, (𝜎1𝑇 )ult
▪ Experimental evaluation:
• Failure of a unidirectional ply under a longitudinal tensile load takes place with
1. Brittle fracture of fibers
2. Brittle fracture of fibers with pullout
3. Fiber pullout with fiber–matrix debonding
• The mode of failure depends on the fiber–matrix bond strength and fiber volume
fraction. For low fiber volume fractions, 0 < Vf <0.40, a typical glass/epoxy composite
exhibits a mode (1) type failure. For intermediate fiber volume fractions, 0.4< Vf <
0.65, mode (2) type failure occurs. For high fiber volume fractions, Vf > 0.65, it exhibits
mode (3) type of failure

(1) (2) (3)

33 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET
Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional
Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Compressive Strength, (𝜎1𝐶 )ult
▪ The model used for calculating the longitudinal Fiber microbuckling extensional mode

tensile strength for a unidirectional lamina cannot

be used for its longitudinal compressive strength
because the failure modes are different

▪ Three typical failure modes are

Fiber microbuckling shear mode

• Fracture of matrix and/or fiber–matrix bond due to

tensile strains in the matrix and/or bond

• Microbuckling of fibers in shear or extensional

mode Transverse tensile failure of matrix

• Shear failure of fibers

Shear failure
34 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET
Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Compressive Strength, (𝜎1𝐶 )ult
▪ Ultimate tensile strains in matrix failure mode:
Assuming that a longitudinal compressive stress of magnitude σ1 is applied

longitudinal compressive strain, transverse tensile strain,

Using maximum strain failure theory, if the transverse strain exceeds the ultimate transverse
tensile strain, (𝜀2𝑇 )ult the lamina is considered to have failed in the transverse direction. Thus,

The value of (𝜀2𝑇 )ult can be found by using the empirical formula:

or the mechanics of materials formula,

35 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Compressive Strength, (𝜎1𝐶 )ult
▪ Shear/extensional fiber microbuckling failure mode:

• Note that the extensional mode

buckling stress is higher than the
shear mode buckling stress for
most cases
• Extensional mode buckling is
3.78a
prevalent only in low fiber volume
fraction composites
• Fiber buckling is the most
probable mode of failure in
advanced polymer matrix
composites 3.78b

36 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Compressive Strength, (𝜎1𝐶 )ult
▪ Shear stress failure of fibers mode:
A unidirectional composite may fail due to direct shear failure of fibers. In this
case, the rule of mixtures gives the shear strength of the unidirectional
composite as

The maximum shear stress in a lamina under a longitudinal compressive load,

𝜎1𝐶 is 𝜎1𝐶 /2 at 45o to the loading axis. Thus,

37 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Longitudinal Compressive Strength, (𝜎1𝐶 )ult
▪ Three models based on each of the preceding failure modes were discussed to find the
magnitude of the ultimate longitudinal compressive strength
▪ However, these models are not found to match the experimental results
▪ Usually, fiber buckling is the most probable mode of failure in advanced polymer matrix
composites
▪ Several factors may contribute to this discrepancy, including
• Irregular spacing of fibers causing premature failure in matrix-rich areas
• Less than perfect bonding between the fibers and the matrix
• Poor alignment of fibers
• Not accounting for Poisson’s ratio mismatch between the fiber and the matrix
• Not accounting for the transversely isotropic nature of fibers such as aramids and
graphite

In addition, there is controversy

concerning the techniques
used in measuring compressive
strengths

38 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Experimental evaluation

16 to 20 plies of 0o lamina that

are 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) wide and
127 mm (5 in.) long
compressed at a rate of 0.5 to
1 mm/min

Stress–strain curve for a [0]24 graphite/epoxy laminate under a longitudinal compressive load

39 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Transverse Tensile Strength, (𝜎2𝑇 )ult
▪ A mechanics of materials approach model for finding the transverse
tensile strength of a unidirectional lamina is discussed with following
assumptions
• A perfect fiber–matrix bond
• Uniform spacing of fibers
• The fiber and matrix follow Hooke’s law
• There are no residual stresses

40 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

 Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Transverse Tensile Strength, (𝜎2𝑇 )ult
▪ So, we get

▪ Now, under transverse loading, one assumes that the stresses in the fiber and matrix are
equal

▪ Substituting the expression for the transverse strain in the fiber, εf

▪ Assuming that the transverse failure of the lamina is due to the failure of the matrix, then
the ultimate transverse failure strain is

▪ The ultimate transverse tensile strength:

41 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Experimental evaluation
The procedure for finding the transverse tensile strength is the same as for
finding the longitudinal tensile strength. Only the specimen dimensions differ.
The standard width of the specimen is 25.4 mm (1 in.) and 8 to 16 plies are
used. This is mainly done to increase the amount of load required to break the
specimen.
• Predicting transverse tensile
strength is quite complicated
• Under a transverse tensile load,
factors other than the individual
properties of the fiber and matrix
are important
• These include the bond strength
between the fiber and the matrix,
the presence of voids, and the
presence of residual stresses due
to thermal expansion mismatch
between the fiber and matrix
• Possible modes of failure under
transverse tensile stress include
matrix tensile failure accompanied
by fiber matrix debonding and/ or
Stress–strain curve for a [90]16 graphite/epoxy laminate fiber splitting
under a transverse tensile load
42 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET
Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ Transverse Compressive Strength, (𝜎2𝐶 )ult
▪ Same equation as the transverse tensile strength is used with the
compressive parameters
▪ The actual compressive strength is again lower due to imperfect fiber/matrix
interfacial bond and longitudinal fiber splitting

43 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Experimental evaluation
The procedure for finding the transverse compressive strength is the same as
that for finding the longitudinal compressive strength. The only difference is in
the specimen dimensions. The width of the specimen is 12.7 mm (1/2 in.) and
30 to 40 plies are used in the test.

• Methods for predicting

transverse compressive
strength are also not
satisfactory

• Several modes of failure

possible under a transverse
compressive stress include
matrix compressive failure,
matrix shear failure, and
matrix shear failure with
fiber–matrix debonding
and/or fiber crushing

Stress–strain curve for a [90]40 graphite/epoxy laminate under a

transverse compressive load perpendicular to the fibers
44 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET
Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ In-plane Shear Strength,(𝛕12)ult
▪ The procedure for finding the ultimate shear strength for a unidirectional
lamina using a mechanics of materials approach is similar to transverse
tensile strength

45 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ In-plane Shear Strength,(𝛕12)ult
▪ Experimental evaluation:
▪ One of the most recommended methods
for calculating the in-plane shear strength
is the [±45]2S laminated tensile coupon
▪ A [±45]2S laminate is an eight-ply laminate
with [+45/–45/+45/–45/-45/+45/–45/+45]
distribution of plies on top of each other
▪ An axial stress σx is applied to the eight-
ply laminate; the axial strain εx and
transverse strain εy are measured
▪ If the laminate fails at a load of (σx)ult, the
ultimate shear strength of a unidirectional
lamina is given by

46 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ In-plane Shear Strength,(𝛕12)ult
▪ Experimental evaluation:
▪ The ultimate shear strain of a unidirectional lamina is,

▪ An eight-ply [±45]2S laminate is used for two reasons

• First, according to maximum stress and strain failure theories, each lamina
fails in the shear mode and at the same load. The stress at which it fails is
simply twice the shear strength of a unidirectional lamina and is independent
of the other mechanical properties of the lamina

• Second, the shear strain is measured simply by strain gages in two

perpendicular directions and does not require the values of elastic constants
of the lamina

47 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
▪ In-plane Shear Strength,(𝛕12)ult
▪ Experimental evaluation:

• The prediction of the ultimate

shear strength is complex

• Similar parameters, such as

weak interfaces, the presence
of voids, and Poisson’s ratio
mismatch, make modeling quite
complex

Shear stress–shear strain curve obtained from a [±45]2S

graphite/epoxy laminate under a tensile load
48 ME449 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET