ME 449

Composite Materials

Introduction

Sheikh Mohammad Shavik, PhD

Assistant Professor
Dept. of ME, BUET
Office: Room no. ME421, ME Building,
BUET
Email: [email protected]

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ME 449: Course Contents
▪ 3 Credit Hours

▪ Sun 11-11:50am, Mon 9-9:50am, Tue 8-8:50am [Room: ME220]

▪ Fibrous composites; Reinforcement types; Ply stiffness; Ply

strength; Failure criteria; Layered laminate; Laminate stiffness;
Laminate strength; Residual stress; Thin - walled composite
sections; Interlaminar stresses; Hole in laminates; Buckling of
laminates.

▪ Office Hours: Tuesday 9-10 am

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ME 449: Course Outcomes (CO)
▪ By the end of this course, students will be able to understand the
mechanics of composite materials and:
▪ CO 1 : Understand different types of fiber and matrix materials,
mechanical properties and behavior of these materials, advantages and
modern applications of composite materials.
▪ CO 2 : Understand planes of material symmetry, formulate of the
stress-strain relations of 3D orthotropic lamina, analyze the Hooke's law
for 2D angle lamina, compare the available failure criteria for orthotropic
lamina.
▪ CO 3 : Analyze the composite lamina from the micro-mechanical
viewpoint, determine the mechanical properties as a function of fiber or
composite volume fractions, modify or optimize the properties for desired
applications.
▪ CO 4 : Understand laminate and codes of laminate, formulate the
stress-strain relation for laminated composites, evaluate the mechanical
and hydrothermal properties of composite laminates.
▪ CO 5 : Analyze structural elements from composite materials such as
bars, plates, beams, etc.
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ME 449: Assessment
▪ Assessment
• Class Participation/Attendance: 10%
• Homework Assignment and Quizzes: 20%
• Term Final Exam: 70%
▪ Academic Offences:
• Students must write their assignment in their own words. If students
take an idea, or a passage of text from book, journal, website etc., they must
acknowledge this by proper referencing such as footnotes or citations.
• Plagiarism is a major academic offence.
• Proxy in class attendance is strictly forbidden.

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Reference Books

▪ Mechanics of Composite Materials, Autar K. Kaw, 2nd Edition

▪ Mechanics of Composite Materials, Robert M. Jones, 2nd Edition

▪ Principles of Composite Material Mechanics, Ronald F. Gibson, 3rd Edition

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Composite Materials
▪ The word composite in the term composite material signifies that two or
more materials are combined on a macroscopic scale to form a useful third
material
▪ The key is the macroscopic examination of a material wherein the
components can be identified by the naked eye
▪ Different materials can be combined on a microscopic scale, such as in
alloying of metals, but the resulting material is, for all practical purposes,
macroscopically homogeneous, i.e., the components cannot be
distinguished by the naked eye and essentially act together.

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Composite Materials
▪ One constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one in which it is
embedded is called the matrix
▪ The reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibers, particles, or
flakes
▪ The matrix phase materials are generally continuous
▪ Examples of composite systems include concrete reinforced with steel and
epoxy reinforced with graphite fibers, etc.

concrete reinforced with steel

epoxy reinforced with graphite fibers

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Naturally found Composites
▪ Wood:
lignin matrix is reinforced with
cellulose fibers

▪ Bone:
bone-salt plates made of calcium and
phosphate ions reinforce soft collagen

▪ Others: coconut, cotton, flax, jute, abaca, bamboo, wheat straw etc.
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History
▪ Structural materials can be divided into four basic categories:
• metals
• polymers
• ceramics
• composites
▪ Composites, which consist of two or more separate materials combined in
a structural unit, are typically made from various combinations of the
other three materials
▪ In the early days of modern man-made composite materials, the
constituents were typically macroscopic
▪ As composites technology advanced over the last few decades, the
constituent materials, particularly the reinforcement materials, steadily
decreased in size
▪ Most recently, there has been considerable interest in “nanocomposites”
having nanometer-sized reinforcements such as carbon nanoparticles,
nanofibers, and nanotubes, because of the extraordinary properties of
these materials
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History

Steadily increasing importance of polymers, composites, and ceramics and the

decreasing role of metals
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History
▪ Composite materials have a long history of usage
▪ Their precise beginnings are unknown, but all recorded history contains
references to some form of composite material
▪ For example, straw was used by the Israelites to strengthen mud bricks
▪ Plywood was used by the ancient Egyptians when they realized that wood
could be rearranged to achieve superior strength and resistance to thermal
expansion as well as to swelling caused by the absorption of moisture
▪ Medieval swords and armor were constructed with layers of different
metals
▪ More recently, fiber-reinforced, resin-matrix composite materials that have
high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios have become
important in weight sensitive applications such as aircraft and space
vehicles

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Advanced Composites
▪ Advanced composites are composite materials that are traditionally used
in the aerospace industries
▪ These composites have high performance reinforcements of a thin
diameter in a matrix material such as epoxy and aluminum
▪ Examples are:
• graphite/epoxy
• Kevlar/epoxy
• boron/aluminum
▪ These materials have now found applications in commercial industries as
well

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Advantages of using composites over
metals
▪ The advantage of composite materials is that, if well designed, they usually
exhibit the best qualities of their components or constituents and often
some qualities that neither constituent possesses
▪ Some of the properties that can be improved by forming a composite
material are:
• strength • fatigue life • stiffness • temperature-dependent behavior
• corrosion resistance • thermal insulation • wear resistance
• thermal conductivity • attractiveness • acoustical insulation • weight
▪ Naturally, not all of these properties are improved at the same time nor is
there usually any requirement to do so
▪ In fact, some of the properties are in conflict with one another, e.g., thermal
insulation versus thermal conductivity
▪ The objective is merely to create a material that has only the characteristics
needed to perform the design task
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Advantages of using composites over
metals
▪ Only by combining several materials can one meet the performance
requirements
▪ For example, trusses and benches used in satellites need to be dimensionally
stable in space during temperature changes between –160oC and 93.3oC.
Limitations on coefficient of thermal expansion thus are low and may be of
the order of ±1.8 × 10−6 m/m/oC. Monolithic materials cannot meet these
requirements; this leaves composites, such as graphite/epoxy, as the only
materials to satisfy them.
▪ In many cases, using composites is more efficient.
▪ For example, in the highly competitive airline market, the goal is to lower the
overall mass of the aircraft without decreasing the stiffness and strength of
its components. This is possible by replacing conventional metal alloys with
composite materials. Even if the composite material costs may be higher, the
reduction in the number of parts in an assembly and the savings in fuel costs
make them more profitable. Reducing one lbm (0.453 kg) of mass in a
commercial aircraft can save up to 360 gal (1360 l) of fuel per year; fuel
expenses are 25% of the total operating costs of a commercial airline.
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Measuring mechanical advantage of
composites
▪ The axial deflection, u of a prismatic rod under an axial load, P is given by

where, L = length of the rod,

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod
Because the mass, M of the rod is given by

where, ρ = density of the material of the rod, we have

▪ This implies that the lightest beam for specified deflection under a specified
load is one with the highest (E/ρ) value
▪ The (E/ρ) ratio is calculated called the specific modulus or specific stiffness

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Measuring mechanical advantage of
composites
▪ The other parameter is called the specific strength and is defined as the
ratio between the strength (σult) and the density of the material (ρ)

▪ These two ratios are high in composite materials

▪ For example, the strength of a graphite/epoxy unidirectional composite
could be the same as steel, but the specific strength is three times that
of steel
▪ So, if a rod is designed to take a fixed axial load, the rod cross section of
graphite/epoxy would be same as that of the steel, but the mass of
graphite/epoxy rod would be one third of the steel rod
▪ This reduction in mass translates to reduced material and energy costs

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▪ The comparison of the specific modulus and specific strength parameters of
unidirectional composites to metals must be done carefully
▪ Unidirectional composite structures are acceptable only for carrying simple loads such as
uniaxial tension or pure bending. In structures with complex requirements of loading and
stiffness, composite structures including angle plies will be necessary.
▪ The strengths and elastic moduli of unidirectional composites given in Table are those in
the direction of the fiber. The strength and elastic moduli perpendicular to the fibers are
far less.
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 “Are specific modulus and specific strength the only mechanical
parameters used for measuring the relative advantage of composites
over metals?”

▪ It depends on the application

▪ Consider compression of a column, where it may fail due to buckling.
We can show that the lightest column for specified stiffness is one
with the highest value of E1/2/ρ
▪ Similarly, we can prove that, for achieving the minimum deflection in a
beam under a load along its length, the lightest beam is one with the
highest value of E1/3/ρ
▪ Other mechanical parameters for comparing the performance of
composites to metals include resistance to fracture, fatigue, impact,
and creep

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Drawbacks/Limitations of composite
materials
▪ High cost of fabrication of composites:
• It is a critical issue
• For example, a part made of graphite/epoxy composite may cost up to 10
to 15 times the material costs. A finished graphite/epoxy composite part
may cost as much as $300 to $400 per pound ($650 to $900 per kilogram).
• Improvements in processing and manufacturing techniques will lower
these costs in the future
• Already, manufacturing techniques such as SMC (sheet molding
compound) and SRIM (structural reinforcement injection molding) are
lowering the cost and production time in manufacturing automobile parts

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Drawbacks/Limitations of composite
materials
▪ Mechanical characterization of composites:
• more complex than that of a metal structure
• Unlike metals, composite materials are not isotropic, that is, their
properties are not the same in all directions. Therefore, they require
more material parameters.
• For example, a single layer of a graphite/epoxy composite requires nine
stiffness and strength constants for conducting mechanical analysis
• In the case of a monolithic material such as steel, one requires only four
stiffness and strength constants
• Such complexity makes structural analysis computationally and
experimentally more complicated and intensive
• In addition, evaluation and measurement techniques of some composite
properties, such as compressive strengths, are still being debated
• Biaxial testing is more complicated and expensive

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Drawbacks/Limitations of composite
materials
▪ Repair of composites:
• is not a simple process compared to that for metals
• Sometimes critical flaws and cracks in composite structures may go undetected
▪ Poor combination of Strength and Fracture Toughness:
• Composites do not have a high
combination of strength and fracture
toughness compared to metals
• Plot shows fracture toughness vs.
yield strength for a 1-in. (25-mm)
thick material
• 3 Metals show an excellent
combination of strength and fracture
toughness compared to composites.
(Note: The transition areas in Figure
will change with change in the
thickness of the specimen)

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Drawbacks/Limitations of composite
materials
▪ Composites do not necessarily give
higher performance in all the
properties used for material selection.
▪ Six primary material selection
parameters — strength, toughness,
formability, joinability, corrosion
resistance, and affordability — are
shown in the plot
▪ If the values at the circumference are
considered as the normalized required
property level for a particular
application, the shaded areas show
values provided by ceramics, metals,
and metal–ceramic composites.
▪ Clearly, composites show better
strength than metals, but lower values
for other material selection parameters

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 Why are fiber reinforcements of a thin
diameter?
▪ Reduced Inherent flaws:
▪ Actual strength of materials is
several magnitudes lower than
the theoretical strength due to
the inherent flaws in the
material
▪ Removing these flaws can
increase the strength of the
material
▪ As the fibers become smaller in
diameter, the chances of an
inherent flaw in the material are
reduced
▪ A steel plate may have strength
of 689 MPa while a wire made
from this steel plate can have
strength of 4100 MPa Lamotte, E. De, and Perry, A.J., Fibre Sci.
Technol., 3, 159, 1970

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Why are fiber reinforcements of a thin
diameter?
▪ For higher ductility and toughness, and better transfer of loads from the
matrix to fiber, composites require larger surface area of the fiber–matrix
interface
Assume a lamina consisting of N fibers of diameter D. The fiber–matrix interface
area in this lamina is
AI = N π D L
If we replace the fibers of diameter, D, by fibers of diameter, d, then the number
of fibers, n, to keep the fiber volume the same would be

Then, the fiber–matrix interface area in the resulting lamina would be

This implies that, for a fixed fiber
volume in a given volume of composite,
the area of the fiber–matrix interface is
inversely proportional to the diameter
of the fiber
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Why are fiber reinforcements of a thin
diameter?
▪ Fibers able to bend without breaking are required in manufacturing of
composite materials, especially for woven fabric composites
▪ Ability to bend increases with a decrease in the fiber diameter and is
measured as flexibility
▪ Flexibility is defined as the inverse of bending stiffness and is proportional to
the inverse of the product of the elastic modulus of the fiber and the fourth
power of its diameter
▪ Proof:
1
flexibility =
𝐸𝐼

Bending stiffness

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 What fiber factors contribute to the
mechanical performance of a composite?
▪ Length:
• The fibers can be long or short. Long, continuous fibers are easy to orient and
process, but short fibers cannot be controlled fully for proper orientation.
• Long fibers provide many benefits over short fibers. These include impact
resistance, low shrinkage, improved surface finish, and dimensional stability.
• However, short fibers provide low cost, are easy to work with, and have fast
cycle time fabrication procedures.
• Short fibers have fewer flaws and therefore have higher strength.
▪ Orientation:
• Fibers oriented in one direction give very high stiffness and strength in that
direction.
• If the fibers are oriented in more than one direction, there will be high
stiffness and strength in the directions of the fiber orientations.
• However, for the same volume of fibers per unit volume of the composite, it
cannot match the stiffness and strength of unidirectional composites.

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What fiber factors contribute to the
mechanical performance of a composite?
▪ Shape:
• The most common shape of fibers is circular because handling and
manufacturing them is easy
• Hexagon and square-shaped fibers are possible, but their advantages of
strength and high packing factors do not outweigh the difficulty in handling
and processing

▪ Material:
• The material of the fiber directly influences the mechanical performance of a
composite
• Fibers are generally expected to have high elastic moduli and strengths
• This expectation and cost have been key factors in the graphite, aramids, and
glass dominating the fiber market for composites

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What are the matrix factors that contribute to the
mechanical performance of composites?
▪ Use of fibers by themselves is limited, with the exceptions of ropes and
cables. Therefore, fibers are used as reinforcement to matrices.
▪ The matrix functions include
• binding the fibers together
• protecting fibers from the environment
• shielding from damage due to handling
• and distributing the load to fibers
▪ Although matrices by themselves generally have low mechanical properties
compared to those of fibers, the matrix influences many mechanical
properties of the composite
▪ These properties include transverse modulus and strength, shear modulus
and strength, compressive strength, interlaminar shear strength, thermal
expansion coefficient, thermal resistance, and fatigue strength

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 Other factors influencing the mechanical
performance of a composite
▪ Fiber–matrix interface: It determines how well the matrix transfers the load
to the fibers. Chemical, mechanical, and reaction bonding may form the
interface. In most cases, more than one type of bonding occurs.
▪ Chemical bonding:
• formed between the fiber surface and the matrix
• Some fibers bond naturally to the matrix and others do not
• Coupling agents are often added to form a chemical bond
▪ Mechanical bond:
• The natural roughness or etching of the fiber surface causing
interlocking may form a mechanical bond between the fiber and matrix
▪ If the thermal expansion coefficient of the matrix is higher than that of the
fiber, and the manufacturing temperatures are higher than the operating
temperatures, the matrix will radially shrink more than the fiber. This
causes the matrix to compress around the fiber.

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Other factors influencing the mechanical
performance of a composite
▪ Reaction bonding
• occurs when atoms or molecules of the fiber and the matrix diffuse into
each other at the interface
• This interdiffusion often creates a distinct interfacial layer, called the
interphase, with different properties from that of the fiber or the matrix
• Although this thin interfacial layer helps to form a bond, it also forms
microcracks in the fiber
• These microcracks reduce the strength of the fiber and thus that of the
composite
• Weak or cracked interfaces can cause failure in composites and reduce
the properties influenced by the matrix
• They also allow environmental hazards such as hot gases and moisture
to attack the fibers

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Classification of composite materials
▪ Composites are classified by the geometry of the reinforcement —
particulate, flake, and fibers — or by the type of matrix — polymer, metal,
ceramic, and carbon
▪ Classification based on geometry of the reinforcement:
▪ Particulate composites:
• consist of particles immersed in matrices such as alloys and ceramics
• They are usually isotropic because the particles are added randomly
• Particulate composites have advantages such as improved strength, increased
operating temperature, oxidation resistance, etc.
• Typical examples include use of aluminum particles in rubber; silicon carbide
particles in aluminum; and gravel, sand, and cement to make concrete

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Classification of composite materials
▪ Flake composites:
• consist of flat reinforcements of matrices
• Typical flake materials are glass, mica, aluminum, and silver
• Flake composites provide advantages such as high out-of-plane
flexural modulus, higher strength, and low cost
• However, flakes cannot be oriented easily and only a limited number
of materials are available for use

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Classification of composite materials
▪ Fiber composites:
▪ consist of matrices reinforced by short (discontinuous) or long (continuous)
fibers
▪ Fibers are generally anisotropic and examples include carbon and aramids
▪ Examples of matrices are resins such as epoxy, metals such as aluminum, and
ceramics such as calcium–alumino silicate
▪ The fundamental units of continuous fiber matrix composite are
unidirectional or woven fiber laminas
▪ Laminas are stacked on top of each other at various angles to form a
multidirectional laminate

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Classification of composite materials
▪ Nanocomposites:
• consist of materials that are of the scale of nanometers (10–9 m)
• The accepted range to be classified as a nanocomposite is that one of the
constituents is less than 100 nm
• At this scale, the properties of materials are different from those of the bulk
material
• Generally, advanced composite materials have constituents on the microscale
(10–6 m)
• By having materials at the nanometer scale, most of the properties of the
resulting composite material are better than the ones at the microscale
• Not all properties of nanocomposites are better; in some cases, toughness
and impact strength can decrease
• Applications of nanocomposites include packaging applications for the
military in which nanocomposite films show improvement in properties such
as elastic modulus, and transmission rates for water vapor, heat distortion,
and oxygen

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Classification of composite materials
▪ Classification based on type of matrix (These are all fiber composites):

▪ Polymer Matrix Composites:

• The most common advanced composites are polymer matrix composites

(PMCs) consisting of a polymer (e.g., epoxy, polyester, urethane) reinforced
by thin diameter fibers (e.g., graphite, aramids, glass, boron)

• For example, graphite/epoxy composites are approximately five times

stronger than steel on a weight-for-weight basis

• Advantages: low cost, high strength, and simple manufacturing principles

• Drawbacks: low operating temperatures, high coefficients of thermal and

moisture expansion and low elastic properties in certain directions

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Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

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Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
▪ Glass Fiber:
▪ most common fiber used in PMC
▪ Advantages: high strength, low cost, high chemical resistance, and good
insulating properties
▪ Drawbacks: low elastic modulus, poor adhesion to polymers, high specific
gravity, sensitivity to abrasion, and low fatigue strength
▪ Types: The main types are E-glass (also called “fiberglass”) and S-glass. E-
glass stands for electrical because it was designed for electrical applications.
However, it is used for many other purposes now, such as decorations and
structural applications. The “S” in S-glass stands for higher content of silica.
It retains its strength at high temperatures compared to E-glass and has
higher fatigue strength. It is used mainly for aerospace applications.
▪ Manufacturing: Glass fibers are made generally by drawing from a melt

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 Schematic of manufacturing glass
fibers and available glass forms

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Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
▪ Graphite Fiber:
▪ very common in high-modulus and high-strength applications such as aircraft
components
▪ Advantages: high specific strength and modulus, low coefficient of thermal
expansion, and high fatigue strength
▪ Drawbacks: high cost, low impact resistance, and high electrical conductivity
▪ Carbon fibers have 93 to 95% carbon content, but graphite has more than
99% carbon content
▪ Carbon fibers are produced at 1316oC, and graphite fibers are typically
produced in excess of 1900oC

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 Pyrolysis

Stages of manufacturing a carbon fiber from PAN (polyacrylonitrile)

based precursors

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Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
▪ Aramid Fiber:
▪ an aromatic organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen
▪ Advantages: low density, high tensile strength, low cost, and high impact
resistance
▪ Drawbacks: low compressive properties and degradation in sunlight
▪ Types: The two main types of aramid fibers are Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 49
▪ Both types of Kevlar fibers have similar specific strengths, but Kevlar 49
has a higher specific stiffness
▪ Kevlar 29 is mainly used in bulletproof vests, ropes, and cables
▪ High performance applications in the aircraft industry use Kevlar 49

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Matrix/resin systems in PMC
▪ Polyesters:
• Advantages: low cost and the ability to be made translucent
• Drawbacks: service temperatures below 77oC, brittleness, and high
shrinkage of as much as 8% during curing
▪ Phenolics:
• Advantages: low cost and high mechanical strength
• Drawbacks: include high void content
▪ Epoxies:
• Advantages: high mechanical strength and good adherence to metals and
glasses
• Drawbacks: high cost and difficulty in processing

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Comparison of performance of several common matrices used in polymer matrix composites

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Thermosets and thermoplastics
▪ Thermoset polymers are insoluble and infusible after cure because the
chains are rigidly joined with strong covalent bonds
• Typical examples of thermoset include epoxies, polyesters, phenolics,
and polyamide
▪ Thermoplastics are formable at high temperatures and pressure because
the bonds are weak and of the van der Waals type
• Typical examples of thermoplastics include polyethylene, polystyrene,
polyether–ether–ketone (PEEK), and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)

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Prepregs
▪ Prepregs are a ready-made tape composed of fibers in a polymer matrix
▪ They are available in standard widths from 3 to 50 in. (76 to 1270 mm)
▪ Depending on whether the polymer matrix is thermoset or thermoplastic,
the tape is stored in a refrigerator or at room temperature, respectively
▪ One can lay these tapes manually or mechanically at various orientations
to make a composite structure
▪ Vacuum bagging and curing under high pressures and temperatures may
follow

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Metal matrix composites
▪ Metal matrix composites (MMCs), as the name implies, have a metal
matrix
▪ Examples of matrices in such composites include aluminum, magnesium,
and titanium
▪ Typical fibers include carbon and silicon carbide
▪ Metals are mainly reinforced to increase or decrease their properties to
suit the needs of design
▪ For example, the elastic stiffness and strength of metals can be
increased, and large coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal and
electric conductivities of metals can be reduced, by the addition of fibers
such as silicon carbide

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Ceramic matrix composites
▪ Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) have a ceramic matrix such as alumina
calcium alumino silicate reinforced by fibers such as carbon or silicon
carbide
▪ Advantages of CMCs include high strength, hardness, high service
temperature limits for ceramics, chemical inertness, and low density
▪ However, ceramics by themselves have low fracture toughness
▪ Under tensile or impact loading, they fail catastrophically
▪ Reinforcing ceramics with fibers, such as silicon carbide or carbon, increases
their fracture toughness because it causes gradual failure of the composite
▪ This combination of a fiber and ceramic matrix makes CMCs more attractive
for applications in which high mechanical properties and extreme service
temperatures are desired

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Carbon–Carbon Composites
▪ Carbon–carbon composites use carbon fibers in a carbon matrix
▪ These composites are used in very high-temperature environments of up to
6000°F (3315°C) and are 20 times stronger and 30% lighter than graphite fibers
▪ Carbon is brittle and flaw sensitive like ceramics
▪ Reinforcement of a carbon matrix allows the composite to fail gradually and also
gives advantages such as
• ability to withstand high temperatures
• low creep at high temperatures
• low density
• good tensile and compressive strengths
• high fatigue resistance
• high thermal conductivity
• high coefficient of friction
▪ Drawbacks include high cost, low shear strength, and susceptibility to oxidations
at high temperatures

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