ASSIGNMENT

ON
ADVANCED CONTROL
SYSTEM

JOYAL JOSE AUGUSTINE

1.Explain the principle of duality between controllability and observability.

The concepts of controllability and observability are very similar. In fact, there is a concrete relationship between the two.
We can say that a system (A, B) is controllable if and only if the system (A', C, B', D) is observable. This fact can be prov en
by plugging A' in for A, and B' in for C into the observability Gramian. The resulting equation will exact ly mirror the formula
for the controllability gramian, implying that the two results are the same.

2. Develop the matrix representation of MIMO system.

Figure 10.1 shows a linear dynamic MIMO filter. Its array of K-inputs, after z-transforming, can be represented by the column vector
[F(z)]. Its array of outputs, having the same number of elements as the input array, is represented by the column vector [ G(z)]. The
transfer function of the MIMO filter is represented by a square K x K matrix of transfer functions:

Figure 10.1 A linear MIMO filter.

The output vector can be expressed as

3. Explain the stability in the sense of Lyapunov.

Consider a dynamical system which satisfies x˙ = f(x, t) x(t0) = x0 x ∈ Rn. (4.31) The equilibrium point x∗ =
0 of (4.31) is stable (in the sense of Lyapunov) at t = t0 if for any > 0 there exists a δ(t0, ) > 0 such that
x(t0)< δ =⇒ x(t) < , ∀t ≥ t0. (4.32) Lyapunov stability is a very mild requirement on equilibrium points. In
particular, it does not require that trajectories starting close to the origin tend to the origin
asymptotically. Also, stability is defined at a time instant t0. Uniform stability is a concept which
guarantees that the equilibrium point is not losing stability. We insist that for a uniformly stable
equilibrium point x∗, δ in the Definition 4.1 not be a function of t0, so that equation (4.32) may hold for
all t0.

4. Discuss the basic concept of describing function methods.

The describing function method is used for finding out the stability of a non linear system of
all the analytical methods developed over the years for non linear control systems, this method
is generally agreed upon as being the most practically useful. This method is basically an
approximate extension of frequency response methods including Nyquist stability criterion to
non linear system.

The describing function method of a non linear system is defined to be the complex ratio of
amplitudes and phase angle between fundamental harmonic components of output to input
sinusoid. We can also called sinusoidal describing function. Mathematically,

Where,
N = describing function,
X = amplitude of input sinusoid,
Y = amplitude of the fundamental harmonic component of output,
φ1 = phase shift of the fundamental harmonic component of output.
Let us discuss the basic concept of describing the function of non linear control system.

5. Explain the classification of non-linearities and give the examples for each

In most types of control systems, we can not avoid the presence of certain types of non-
linearities. These can be classified as static or dynamic. A system for which there is a nonlinear
relationship between input and output, that does not involve a differential equation is called a
static nonlinearity. On the other hand, the input and output may be related through a nonlinear
differential equation. Such a system is called a dynamic nonlinearity.
Now we are going to discuss various types of non-linearities in a control system:

Saturation nonlinearity

Friction nonlinearity

Dead zone nonlinearity

Relay nonlinearity (ON OFF controller)

Backlash nonlinearity

Saturation Nonlinearity

Saturation nonlinearity is a common type of nonlinearity. For example see this nonlinearity in
the saturation in the magnetizing curve of DC motor. In order to understand this type of
nonlinearity let us discuss saturation curve or magnetizing curve which is given below:

From the above curve we can see that the output showing linear behavior in the beginning but
after that there is a saturation in the curve which one kind of non linearity in the system. We
have also shown approximated curve.
Same type of saturation non linearity also we can see in an amplifier for which the output is
proportional to the input only for a limited range of values of input. When the input exceeds
this range, the output tends to become non linearity.

Friction Nonlinearity

Anything which opposes the relative motion of the body is called friction. It is a kind of non
linearity present in the system. The common example in an electric motor in which we find
coulomb friction drag due to the rubbing contact between the brushes and the commutator.

Friction may be of three types and they are written below:

Static Friction : In simple words, the static friction acts on the body when the body is at rest.

Dynamic Friction : Dynamic friction acts on the body when there is a relative motion between
the surface and the body.

Limiting Friction : It is defined as the maximum value of limiting friction that acts on the body
when it is at rest.
Dynamic friction can also be classified as (a) Sliding friction (b) Rolling friction. Sliding friction
acts when two bodies slides over each other while rolling acts when the bodies rolls over
another body.
In mechanical system we have two types of friction namely (a) Viscous friction (b) Static
friction.

Dead Zone Nonlinearity

Dead zone nonlinearity is shown in various electrical devices like motors, DC servo motors,
actuators etc. Dead zone non linearities refer to a condition in which output becomes zero
when the input crosses certain limiting value.

Relays Nonlinearity (ON/OFF Controller)

Electromechanical relays are frequently used in control systems where the control strategy
requires a control signal with only two or three states. This is also called as ON/OFF controller
or two state controller.

Relay Non-Linearity (a) ON/OFF (b) ON/OFF with Hysteresis (c) ON/OFF with Dead Zone. Fig
(a) shows the ideal characteristics of a bidirectional relay. In practice, relay will not respond
instantaneously. For input currents between the two switching instants, the relay may be in one
position or other depending upon the previous history of the input. This characteristic is called
ON/OFF with hysteresis that shows in Fig (b). A relay also has a definite amount of dead zone
in practice that show in Fig (c). The dead zone is caused by the fact that the relay field winding
requires a finite amount of current to move the armature.

Backlash Nonlinearity

Another important nonlinearity commonly occurring in the physical system is hysteresis in

mechanical transmissions such as gear trains and linkages. This nonlinearity is somewhat
different from magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash nonlinearities.
Backlash in fact is the play between the teeth of the drive gear and those of the driven gear.
Consider a gearbox as shown in below figure (a) having backlash as illustrated in fig (b).

Fig (b) shows the teeth A of the driven gear located midway between the teeth B1, B2 of the
driven gear. Fig (c) gives the relationship between input and output motions. As the teeth A is
driven clockwise from this position, no output motion takes place until the tooth A makes
contact with the tooth B1 of the driven gear after traveling a distance x/2. This output motion
corresponds to the segment mn of fig (c). After the contact is made the driven gear rotates
counterclockwise through the same angle as the drive gear if the gear ratio is assumed to be
unity. This is illustrated by the line segment no. As the input motion is reversed, the contact
between the teeth A and B1 is lost and the driven gear immediately becomes stationary based on
the assumption that the load is friction controlled with negligible inertia.
The output motion, therefore, causes till tooth A has traveled a distance x in the reverse
direction as shown in fig (c) by the segment op. After the tooth A establishes contact with the
tooth B2, the driven gear now mores in a clockwise direction as shown by segment pq. As the
input motion is reversed the direction gear is again at standstill for the segment qr and then
follows the drive gear along rn.

6.Explain the effect of state feedback on controllability and observability

An essential system property in state feedback is Controllability, and our first important observation is
that Controllability is invariant with respect to state feedback. controllable. It is interesting to note that,
on the other hand, Observability is not invariant with respect to feedback. y(t) = [1 2] x(t).

7.Describe the optimal regulator design by parameter adjustment.

The value of plant model information available in the control design process is discussed. We design optimal state-feedback
controllers for interconnected discrete-time linear systems with stochastically-varying parameters. The parameters are assumed to
be independently and identically distributed random variables in time. The design of each controller relies only on (i) exact local
plant model information and (ii) statistical beliefs about the model of the rest of the system. We consider both finite-horizon and
infinite-horizon quadratic cost functions. The optimal state-feedback controller is derived in both cases. The optimal controller is
shown to be linear in the state and to depend on the model parameters and their statistics in a particular way.

8.List out the common physical non-linearities with an example.

The common examples of physical nonlinearities are saturation, dead zone, coulomb friction, stiction,
backlash, different types of springs, different types of relays etc.

Saturation: This is the most common of all nonlinearities. All practical systems, when driven by
sufficiently large signals, exhibit the phenomenon of saturation due to limitations of physical capabilities
of their components. Saturation is a common phenomenon in magnetic circuits and amplifiers.
Piecewise linear approximation of saturation nonlinearity Friction: Retarding frictional forces exist
whenever mechanical surfaces come in sliding contact. The predominant frictional force called the
viscous friction is proportional to the relative velocity of sliding surfaces. Vicous friction is thus linear in
nature. In addition to the viscous friction, there exist two nonlinear frictions. One is the coulomb friction
which is constant retarding force & the other is the stiction which is the force required to initiate
motion.The force of stiction is always greater than that of coulomb friction since due to interlocking of
surface irregularities,more force is require to move an object from rest than to maintain it in motion.

Dead zone: Some systems do not respond to very small input signals. For a particular range of input, the
output is zero. This is called dead zone existing in a system.

Dead-zone nonlinearity Backlash: Another important nonlinearity commonly occurring in physical

systems is hysteresis in mechanical transmission such as gear trains and linkages. This nonlinearity is
somewhat different from magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash. In servo
systems, the gear backlash may cause sustained oscillations or chattering phenomenon and the system
may even turn unstable for large backlash. As the teeth A is driven clockwise from this position, no
output motion takes place until the tooth A makes contact with the tooth B1 of the driven gear after
travelling a distance 69 x/2. This output motion corresponds to the segment mn. After the contact is
made the driven gear rotates counter clockwise through the same angle as the drive gear, if the gear
ratio is assumed to be unity. This is illustrated by the line segment no. As the input motion is reversed,
the contact between the teeth A and B1 is lost and the driven gear immediately becomes stationary
based on the assumption that the load is friction controlled with negligible inertia. The output motion
therefore causes till tooth A has travelled a distance x in the reverse direction as shown by the segment
op. After the tooth A establishes contact with the tooth B2, the driven gear now mores in clockwise
direction as shown by segment pq. As the input motion is reversed the direction gear is again at
standstill for the segment qr and then follows the drive gear along rn. Relay: A relay is a nonlinear power
amplifier which can provide large power amplification inexpensively and is therefore deliberately
introduced in control systems. A relay controlled system can be switched abruptly between several
discrete states which are usually off, full forward and full reverse. Relay controlled systems find wide
applications in the control field. The characteristic of an ideal relay is as shown in figure. In practice a
relay has a definite amount of dead zone as shown. This dead zone is caused by the facts that relay coil
requires a finite amount of current to actuate the relay. Further, since a larger coil current is needed to
close the relay than the current at which the relay drops out, the characteristic always exhibits
hysteresis.

Multivariable Nonlinearity: Some nonlinearities such as the torque-speed characteristics of a

servomotor, transistor characteristics etc., are functions of more than one variable. Such nonlinearities
are called multivariable nonlinearities.

9. Describe the saturation and backlash non-linearities

Saturation Nonlinearity

Saturation nonlinearity is a common type of nonlinearity. For example see this nonlinearity in
the saturation in the magnetizing curve of DC motor. In order to understand this type of
nonlinearity let us discuss saturation curve or magnetizing curve which is given below:

From the above curve we can see that the output showing linear behavior in the beginning but
after that there is a saturation in the curve which one kind of non linearity in the system. We
have also shown approximated curve.
Same type of saturation non linearity also we can see in an amplifier for which the output is
proportional to the input only for a limited range of values of input. When the input exceeds
this range, the output tends to become non linearity.

Backlash Nonlinearity

Another important nonlinearity commonly occurring in the physical system is hysteresis in

mechanical transmissions such as gear trains and linkages. This nonlinearity is somewhat
different from magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash nonlinearities.
Backlash in fact is the play between the teeth of the drive gear and those of the driven gear.
Consider a gearbox as shown in below figure (a) having backlash as illustrated in fig (b).

Fig (b) shows the teeth A of the driven gear located midway between the teeth B1, B2 of the
driven gear. Fig (c) gives the relationship between input and output motions. As the teeth A is
driven clockwise from this position, no output motion takes place until the tooth A makes
contact with the tooth B1 of the driven gear after traveling a distance x/2. This output motion
corresponds to the segment mn of fig (c). After the contact is made the driven gear rotates
counterclockwise through the same angle as the drive gear if the gear ratio is assumed to be
unity. This is illustrated by the line segment no. As the input motion is reversed, the contact
between the teeth A and B1 is lost and the driven gear immediately becomes stationary based on
the assumption that the load is friction controlled with negligible inertia.
The output motion, therefore, causes till tooth A has traveled a distance x in the reverse
direction as shown in fig (c) by the segment op. After the tooth A establishes contact with the
tooth B2, the driven gear now mores in a clockwise direction as shown by segment pq. As the
input motion is reversed the direction gear is again at standstill for the segment qr and then
follows the drive gear along rn.

10. State and explain lyapunov stability analysis of control system

Consider a dynamical system which satisfies x˙ = f(x, t) x(t0) = x0 x ∈ Rn. (4.31) We will assume that f(x, t)
satisfies the standard conditions for the existence and uniqueness of solutions. Such conditions are, for
instance, that f(x, t) is Lipschitz continuous with respect to x, uniformly in t, and piecewise continuous in
t. A point x∗ ∈ Rn is an equilibrium point of (4.31) if f(x∗, t) ≡ 0. Intuitively and somewhat crudely
speaking, we say an equilibrium point is locally stable if all solutions which start near x∗ (meaning that
the initial conditions are in a neighborhood of x∗) remain near x∗ for all time. The equilibrium point x∗ is
said to be locally asymptotically stable if x∗ is locally stable and, furthermore, all solutions starting near
x∗ tend towards x∗ as t → ∞. We say somewhat crude because the time-varying nature of equation
(4.31) introduces all kinds of additional subtleties. Nonetheless, it is intuitive that a pendulum has a
locally stable equilibrium point when the pendulum is hanging straight down and an unstable
equilibrium point when it is pointing straight up. If the pendulum is damped, the stable equilibrium
point is locally asymptotically stable. By shifting the origin of the system, we may assume that the
equilibrium point of interest occurs at x∗ = 0. If multiple equilibrium points exist, we will need to study
the stability of each by appropriately shifting the origin.

11. Explain the minimization of functionals of single input.

Minimizing a function means finding the value of variable ( say x ) for which the function (say f ) has minimum value .

It can be find by these three simple steps ( DOUBLE DERIVATIVE TEST ) -

Finding first derivative of function i.e. df/dx and equating it to zero , which gives a value of x ( say x = a )

Finding the double derivative of the same function i.e. d2f / dx2

Checking whether the double derivative at that particular value of x ( find in step 1. ) i.e. x= a

is less than zero . If it is so . Then the function f has maximum value at x=a and x=a is called t he POINT OF
MAXIMA .

is more than zero . If it is so . Then the function f has minimum value at x = a and x=a is called the POINT OF
MINIMA .

is zero . If it is so . Then the function has neither maximum nor minimum value at x=a and x=a is called the POINT
OF INFLEXION.

12. Differentiate between the SISO and MISO systems.

 These are techniques based on number of antennas used at the transmitter and the receiver. SISO
has been in use since the invention of wireless system.MIMO concept has been recently added to
the wireless system. There are different MIMO algorithms which has been developed for two main
reasons to increase coverage and to increase the data rates.

SISO means Single Input Single Output while MIMO means Multiple Input Multiple Output.

In SISO system only one antenna is used at transmitter and one antenna is used at Receiver while
in MIMO case multiple antennas are used. Figure depicts 2x2 MIMO case.

MIMO system achieves better Bit Error rate compare to SISO counterpart at the same SNR. This is
achieved using technique called STBC (Space Time Block Coding). With STBC coverage can be
enhanced.

MIMO system delivers higher data rate due to transmission of multiple data symbols simultaneously
using multiple antennas, this technique is called as Spatial Multiplexing (SM). With SM data rate can
be enhanced.

MIMO with SM and beamforming can be employed to obtain enhancement to both the coverage and
data rate requirement in a wireless system.

SISO is used in radio, satellite, GSM and CDMA systems while MIMO is used in next generation
wireless technologies such as mobile wimax -16e, WLAN-11n.11ac,11ad, 3GPP LTE etc.

13. Explain the models of MIMO system.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL MIMO systems are composed of three main elements, namely the transmitter
(TX ), the channel (H), and the receiver (RX ). The Multiple-Inputs are located at the output of the TX ,
and similarly, the Multiple Outputs are located at the input of the RX . Spectral efficiency of the system η
is given by η = RRs W For proper signal reconstruction, we must have Rs ≤ W. Hence, η ≤ R. So, if we
transmit data at a rate R ≤C, C being the capacity of the channel, we can achieve an arbitrarily low Pe. A
MIMO system model is described as ~y = H~s+~n where ~s is the transmitted vector; ~y is the received
vector; ~n is the noise vector with each element modeled as independent identically distributed (i.i.d.)
white Gaussian noise with variance σ = (2×SNR) and H is the channel matrix and hi j is a complex
Gaussian random variable that represents the attenuation(along with its phase) transfer function(viz.
fading gain) between transmitter i and receiver j. In further discussion, assume~n to be normalized
white Gaussian noise(AWGN).

14. Explain the following:

i) Matrix Representation

ii) Transfer function representation

i) An m × n (read as m by n) order matrix is a set of numbers arranged in m rows and n columns. Matrices of the same
order can be added by adding the corresponding elements. Two matrices can be multiplied, the condition being that the
number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix. Hence, if an m × n matrix is
multiplied with an n × r matrix, then the resultant matrix will be of the order m × r.

Operations like row operations or column operations can be performed on a matrix, using which we can obtain the inverse of
a matrix. The inverse may be obtained by determining the adjoint as well.rows and columns are the different classes of
matrices.

The mathematical definition of a matrix finds applications in computing and database management, a basic starting point
being the concept of arrays. A two-dimensional array can function exactly like a matrix. Two-dimensional arrays can be
visualized as a table consisting of rows and columns.

The transfer function of a control system is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to that of the
ii)
input while taking the initial conditions, as 0. Basically it provides a relationship between input and
output of the system.For a control system, T(s) generally represents the transfer function.

In the figure given below X(s) and Y(s) represents input and output respectively.
The transfer of the system is given as:

Transfer function is considered as an appropriate way of representing a linear time-invariant system.

We know that in a control system, the way in which the system behaves on applying input causes
the variation in output. For any system, initially, the parameters of the system are defined and
according to the need of the system, the values are selected. Further, the input is selected to
determine how the system is performing.

15. What do you mean by state transition? State the properties of state transition matrix

state transition is a conditional assignment of a state to the state machine name. State transitions are created by conditionally
assigning the states with a single behavioral construct.In AHDL, state transitions are created with Case or Truth Table Statements.
State transitions occur on the rising edge of the clock.

The properties of state transition matrix are given by,

Property 1:

φ(0)= [I]

Property 2:

Φ-1(t)= [φ(t)]-1=e-At=eA(-t)

Φ-1(t)= Φ(-t)

Property 3:

ΦK(t)= [Φ(t)]K

ΦK(t)=[eAt]K=eA(tK)

Then ΦK(t)= Φ(Kt)

Property 4:

Φ(t1+t2)=eA(t1+t2)

=e(At1+At2)=eAt1 * eAt2

Φ(t1+t2)= Φ(t1)Φ(t2)

Property 5:

Φ(t2-t1) * φ(t1-t0)=e A(t2-t1) * e A(t1-t0)

Φ(t2-t1) * φ(t1-t0)= Φ(t2-t0)

16. Explain the controllability test for continuous time systems?

Consider the system x˙ = f(x, u) u(.) ∈ Ω ⊆ Rr (1) where Ω is the input constraint set or set of admissible
controls (e.g. |u(t)| ≤ 1) and r is the number of input variables. If the input is unbounded, we shall omit
all reference to Ω. DEFINITION 1: The state x0 is null controllable if there exists an admissible control
u(t), t0 ≤ t < tf such that the corresponding trajectory x(t) of EQ(1) with x(t0) = x0 has x(tf ) = 0.
DEFINITION 1A (NC): The system defined by EQ(1) is null controllable if every x0 is null controllable.
DEFINITION 2: The state xf is reachable if there exists an admissible control u(t), t0 ≤ t < tf such that the
corresponding trajectory x(t) of EQ(1) with x(t0) = 0 has x(tf ) = xf . DEFINITION 2A (R): The system
defined by EQ(1) is reachable if every xf is reachable. DEFINITION 3 (CC): The system of EQ(1) is
completely controllable if for each x0 and xf , there exists an admissible control u(t), t0 ≤ t < tf such that
the corresponding trajectory x(t) of EQ(1) with x(t0) = x0 has x(tf ) = xf . From the definitions we see that
CC ⇒ NC CC ⇒ R NC & R ⇒ CC

17. Explain controllability and observability applied to continuous time varying control systems.

Consider the linear time-invariant system :i:=Ax+Bu y=CX (9.1) (9.2) • The system is completely
controllable if the state of the system can be transferred from zero to any final state x* within a finite
time. • The system is stabilizable if all the unstable eigenvalues are controllable or, in other words, if the
non controllable subspace is stable. • The system is completely observable if the state x can be
determined from the knowledge of u and y over a finite time segment. In the specialized literature,
observability refers to the determination of the current state from future output, while the
determination of the state from past output is called reconstructibility. For linear, time-invariant
systems, these concepts are equivalent and do not have to be distinguished. • The system is detectable
if all the unstable eigenvalues are observable, or equivalently, if the unobservable subspace is stable.

18. Discuss about the singular valve analysis.

Singular value decomposition takes a rectangular matrix of gene expression data

(defined as A, where A is a n x p matrix) in which the n rows represents the genes,
and the p columns represents the experimental conditions. The SVD theorem states:

Anxp= Unxn Snxp VTpxp

Where

UTU = Inxn

VTV = Ipxp (i.e. U and V are orthogonal)

Where the columns of U are the left singular vectors (gene coefficient vectors); S (the
same dimensions as A) has singular values and is diagonal (mode amplitudes); and
VT has rows that are the right singular vectors (expression level vectors). The SVD
represents an expansion of the original data in a coordinate system where the
covariance matrix is diagonal.

Calculating the SVD consists of finding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors

of AAT and ATA. The eigenvectors of ATA make up the columns of V , the eigenvectors
of AAT make up the columns of U. Also, the singular values in S are square roots of
eigenvalues from AAT or ATA. The singular values are the diagonal entries of
the S matrix and are arranged in descending order. The singular values are always real
numbers. If the matrix A is a real matrix, then U and V are also real.

To understand how to solve for SVD, let’s take the example of the matrix that was
provided in Kuruvilla et al:

In this example the matrix is a 4x2 matrix. We know that for an n x n matrix W, then a
nonzero vector x is the eigenvector of W if:

Wx=x

For some scalar . Then the scalar  is called an eigenvalue of A, and x is said to be
an eigenvector of A corresponding to .

So to find the eigenvalues of the above entity we compute matrices AAT and ATA. As
previously stated , the eigenvectors of AAT make up the columns of U so we can do
the following analysis to find U.
Now that we have a n x n matrix we can determine the eigenvalues of the matrix W.

Since W x =  x then (W- I) x = 0

For a unique set of eigenvalues to determinant of the matrix (W-I) must be equal to
zero. Thus from the solution of the characteristic equation, |W-I|=0 we obtain:

=0, =0;  = 15+Ö221.5 ~ 29.883;  = 15-Ö221.5 ~ 0.117 (four eigenvalues since it

is a fourth degree polynomial). This value can be used to determine the eigenvector
that can be placed in the columns of U. Thus we obtain the following equations:

19.883 x1 + 14 x2 = 0

14 x1 + 9.883 x2 = 0

x3 = 0

x4 = 0
Upon simplifying the first two equations we obtain a ratio which relates the value of
x1 to x2. The values of x1 and x2 are chosen such that the elements of the S are the
square roots of the eigenvalues. Thus a solution that satisfies the above equation x1 =
-0.58 and x2 = 0.82 and x3 = x4 = 0 (this is the second column of the U matrix).

Substituting the other eigenvalue we obtain:

-9.883 x1 + 14 x2 = 0

14 x1 - 19.883 x2 = 0

x3 = 0

x4 = 0

Thus a solution that satisfies this set of equations is x1 = 0.82 and x2 = -0.58 and x3 =
x4 = 0 (this is the first column of the U matrix). Combining these we obtain:

Similarly ATA makes up the columns of V so we can do a similar analysis to find the
value of V.

and similarly we obtain the expression:

Finally as mentioned previously the S is the square root of the eigenvalues
from AAT or ATA. and can be obtained directly giving us:

Note that: 1 > 2 > 3 > … which is what the paper was indicating by the figure 4
of the Kuruvilla paper. In that paper the values were computed and normalized such
that the highest singular value was equal to 1.

Proof:

A=USVT and AT=VSUT

ATA = VSUTUSVT

ATA = VS2VT

ATAV = VS2

19. What are the advantages of modern control theory over conventional control
theory
Advantages

It is possible to analyze time-varying or time-invariant, linear or non-linear, single or multiple input-output

systems.

It is possible to confirm the state of the system parameters also and not merely input-output relations.
It is possible to optimize the systems and useful for optimal design.

It is possible to include initial conditions.

20 Define state transition matrix. And list its application.

In control theory, the state-transition matrix is a matrix whose product with the state vector at an initial time gives at a later
time . The state-transition matrix can be used to obtain the general solution of linear dynamical systems.

Applications of state transition matrix are as follows,

Covariance propagation

Precise Orbit Determination (POD)

Guidance, Navigation and Control

Orbit design (for CR3BP)