Instruction Manual

WL 230 Condensation Process

 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS
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Instruction Manual

Last modification by: Dipl.-Ing. J.Boxhammer

This manual must be kept by the unit.

Before operating the unit:

- Read this manual.
- All participants must be instructed on
handling of the unit and, where appropriate,
on the necessary safety precautions.

Version 0.3 Subject to technical alterations

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 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Table of Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Intended use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Structure of the safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Ambient conditions for operation and storage location . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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3 Unit description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1 Unit layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Process schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.1 Condenser layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.2 Liquid level sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.3 Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.4 Water jet pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Filling the tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.2 Removing air from tank B1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.3 Adjusting the cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.4 Cleaning the condenser surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Measurement data acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.1 Software installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.2 Operating the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 Fundamental principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 Vapour pressure depending on temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Coefficient of heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Heat flux density and heat transition coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

5 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1 Determining the coefficient of heat transfer for water vapour . . . . . . 29
5.1.1 Aim of experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1.2 Preparing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1.3 Performing the experiment and evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2 Further experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.1 Influence of non-condensing gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.2 Influence of pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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6.1 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6.2 Vapour pressure table for water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.3 Water vapour table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.4 List of key symbols and units used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.5 List of code letters in process schematic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.6 Tables and diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.7 Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

1 Introduction

When designing and constructing condensers in

Steam power stations and process engineering plants,
knowledge of the condensation process is a key
requirement.
The WL 230 Condensation Process experimen-
tal unit with PC-based measurement data acquisi-
tion enables the condensation process on cooled
tubes to be visualised. In particular, the different
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forms of condensation, such as dropwise and film

Liquid
condensation can be demonstrated.
Fig. 1.1 Construction of a condenser In addition, the influence on the condensation pro-
cess of pressure, temperature and air content in
the steam can be investigated experimentally.
The condensation process takes place in a glass
cylinder, so that the entire process is clearly visi-
ble.
The experimental unit is operated with distilled
water in the negative pressure range. This limits
the temperature level to below 100°C and means
that it is easy to apply the results to practical situ-
ations.
It also means that there are no storage and dis-
posal problems, such as can occur with low-boil-
ing special liquids.

1 Introduction 1
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Learning content/exercises
– Dropwise and film condensation
– Determination of the coefficient of heat transfer
– Influence of pressure, temperature and non-
condensing gases on the coefficient of heat
transfer
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1 Introduction 2
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

2 Safety

2.1 Intended use

The unit is to be used only for teaching purposes.

2.2 Structure of the safety instructions

The signal words DANGER, WARNING or

CAUTION indicate the probability and potential
severity of injury.
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An additional symbol indicates the nature of the

hazard or a required action.

Signal word Explanation

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, will result in

DANGER death or serious injury.

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

WARNING death or serious injury.

Indicates a situation which, if not avoided, may result in

CAUTION minor or moderately serious injury.

Indicates a situation which may result in damage to

NOTICE equipment, or provides instructions on operation of
the equipment.

2 Safety 3
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Symbol Explanation

Electrical voltage

Hot surfaces

Notice
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Wear gloves

2.3 Safety instructions

WARNING
Electrical connections are exposed when the
rear panel is open.
Risk of electric shock.
• Prior to opening the rear panel, unplug the
mains connector.
• Work should only be carried out by qualified
electricians.
• Protect electrical installations from moisture.

2 Safety 4
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

WARNING
Tank, cooling vessel and water separator can
reach up to 100°C.
Risk of scalding.
• Never touch during operation.
• Wear suitable gloves.
• Allow the unit to cool before opening the drain
valve.
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WARNING
In case of damage to the glass vessel
Risk of vessel bursting and burns caused by
escaping hot water.
• Only operate the unit with an undamaged glass
vessel B1.

NOTICE
The experimental unit is only designed for opera-
tion with distilled water.
Other liquids can damage the heater, seals and
materials, and cause deposits to form on the con-
denser. Do not add any detergents to the tank.

NOTICE
High pressure on unit possible.
• Do not remove or adjust safety equipment
(safety valve / pressure switch).
• Check function of safety equipment at regular
intervals.

2 Safety 5
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

NOTICE
Risk of damage to heater.
• Only turn on heater when tank is filled.
• Water level must be at least 4cm above the
heater. When checking the water level, the
heater must be turned off and the water flow to
the condensers must be shut off.
• Top up water in good time.
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NOTICE
Frost damage is possible when the system is
stored.
• Only store the system in a frost-free location.
• If there is a risk of frost, drain the water tank
using the drain valve.
• If the unit will not be used for a long period,
drain the water.

NOTICE
Do not add cold water to the hot empty tank.

NOTICE
Only use pure and clean distilled water. The water
may not contain any additives.

2 Safety 6
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

2.4 Ambient conditions for operation and storage location

• Enclosed space.
• Free of contamination.
• Even and stable surface.
• Frost-free.
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2 Safety 7
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3 Unit description

3.1 Unit layout

14 13 12 10

11

15

16 9
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17 8

7
18
6
19
20 5
21
22
23 4
24
25 3
26
2

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
39

Fig. 3.1 WL 230 unit layout

3 Unit description 8
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

1 Cooling water inlet 21 Outlet temperature display T2

2 Cooling water outlet 22 Outlet temperature display T5
3 Water jet pump valve V3 23 Surface temperature display T3
4 Water jet pump P 24 Surface temperature display T6
5 Condensate separator B2 25 Flow display F1
6 Cooling water valve V2 26 Flow display F2
7 Cooling water valve V1 27 Main switch
8 Cooler (heat exchanger) W3 28 Heating power controller
9 Flow meter F1 & F2 29 Steam pressure display P1
10 Temperature sensor T5 30 Heater on/off button
11 Ventilation valve V8 31 Low water display
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12 Temperature sensor T7 32 Liquid level sensor

13 Safety valve V7 33 Heater W4
14 Temperature sensor T3 34 Tank B1
15 Info panel 35 Filling and drain valve V4
16 Condensation tube W1 - Film condensation 36 Condensate valve V5
17 Condensation tube W2 - Dropwise condensation 37 Ventilation valve V6
18 Steam temperature display T7 38 USB connection
19 Inlet temperature display T1 39 Mains connection
20 Inlet temperature display T4 40 Pressure switch P1 (not visible, on
upper metal flange, going backwards
into switch cabinet)

The experimental unit is designed as a table-top

unit. All components, controls and displays are
clearly laid out on a panel. A process schematic
makes it easier to understand the function.
All measured variables are measured electroni-
cally and displayed digitally. The signals are also
provided to the PC using a USB connection.
All of the electrical wiring and the signal process-
ing components are protected behind the panel in
the switch cabinet.

3 Unit description 9
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.2 Process schematic

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Cooling water
outlet
Cooling water
inlet

Main components
B1 Tank V7 Safety valve
B2 Condensate separator V8 Ventilation valve
P Water jet pump Measurement and control engineering
W1 Condenser for film condensation F1 Flow meter for film condensation
W2 Condenser for dropwise condensation F2 Flow meter for dropwise condensation
W3 Cooler (heat exchanger) P1 Tank pressure
W4 Electric heater T1 Film condensation inlet temperature
V1 Cooling water valve for film conden- T2 Film condensation outlet temperature
sation
V2 Cooling water valve for dropwise T3 Film condensation surface temperature
condensation
V3 Pump valve T4 Dropwise condensation inlet temperature
V4 Filling and drain valve T5 Dropwise condensation outlet temperature
V5 Condensate valve T6 Dropwise condensation surface temperature
V6 Ventilation valve T7 Tank temperature

Fig. 3.2 Process schematic

3 Unit description 10
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

The condensation tubes W1 and W2 are

installed in the upper section of the tank B1. There
is a flow of cooling water through them from the
inside using immersion tubes.
The heat emitted by the steam to the condensa-
tion tubes can be determined by measuring the
inlet and outlet temperature (T1 and T2 / T4 and
T5), and the cooling water flow rate (F1 or F2).
The cooling water flow rate is adjusted using the
valves V1 and V2.
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In the lower section of the tank is a heater W4

with adjustable power. The steam temperature is
measured using T7, the absolute tank pressure
using P1. A safety valve V7 prevents unaccepta-
ble high pressure. A pressure switch shuts down
the heater if there is unacceptable high pressure.
The tank can be evacuated using the water jet
pump P. The water is conveyed from the pump
through the water jet pump valve V3. A non-return
valve on the water jet pump prevents water flow-
ing back into the tank. To prevent steam escaping
and therefore a water loss, the extraction line is fit-
ted with a condensation trap, consisting of the
cooler W3 and the condensate separator B2. The
separated condensate should be fed back to the
tank containing the heater. If the hose line is
vibrating or water is visible in the hose line, close
V6 and open V5 on the water jet pump so that the
condensate can flow back into the tank B1. After
around 30 s, the valves can be returned to their
previous positions.
The valve V4 can be used to fill the tank with dis-
tilled water (at negative pressure) or drain it.

3 Unit description 11
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.2.1 Condenser layout

The two condensation tubes (3) are inserted in the

tank lid.
They are flushed lengthwise with cooling water.
4
The inflowing cooling water is initially fed through
an immersion tube (1) at the lower end and then
rises upwards on the inner wall of the condenser.
This design ensures even cooling over the entire
length. Because of its high thermal conductivity,
the copper material used improves the even tem-
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perature distribution.
The surface temperature is measured using a
2 thermocouple type K (2). The right-hand con-
denser is polished and gold-plated to achieve
dropwise condensation. The surface of the left-
1 hand condenser is matt copper. Film condensa-
3
tion forms here.
Fig. 3.3 Condenser layout
The cooling water outlet temperature is measured
using a temperature sensor (4) in the lid.
Condensation tube dimensions:
External diameter 12mm
Cooled length 107mm
Cooled surface 42,6cm2

3 Unit description 12
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.2.2 Liquid level sensor

The water level in the tank is monitored using a
capacitive liquid level sensor. If the level falls
below a minimum fill level of approx. 4 cm below
Liquid level the heating coil (see also marking on the front
plate), the heater is turned off and a red warning
light is activated.

Fig. 3.4 Liquid level sensor

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3.2.3 Heater
The heater has a maximum power consumption of
3000 W. In order to be able to turn on the heater, the
minimum fill level and the permitted pressure must
be ensured. The power can be adjusted using the
potentiometer next to the on/off switch. The scale
provides no information. The power rises in a non-
linear progression from 400W to 3000W. After being
shut down by the pressure switch or the liquid level
sensor, the heater must be turned on at normal pres-
sure with an appropriate water level using the heater
Fig. 3.5 Heater switch.

3.2.4 Water jet pump

A water jet pump is a simple jet pump that uses
water as the propellant. At the intake on the left-
hand side is a non-return valve, which presents
water from inadvertently escaping through the
intake. Under normal conditions, it is turned on at
Air
the beginning of the experiment and then for 5 to
10 s at intervals of 5 to 15 min according to oper-
Water ating conditions.
Fig. 3.6 Water jet pump

3 Unit description 13
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.3 Commissioning

– Place the unit on a bench top.

– Connect the water inlet and outlet using a 1/2"
hose. Suitable rapid action couplings are sup-
plied.
• Required water pressure
Minimum: 1 bar
• Required flow rate
Continuous: 400 L/h
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Short duration: 1200 L/h

NOTICE
Risk of damage to the unit.
• Before connecting to the electrical supply:
Make sure that the power supply in the labora-
tory corresponds to the specifications on the
unit's rating plate.

– Connect the electrical supply and turn on the

main switch.

3 Unit description 14
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.3.1 Filling the tank

– Connect a hose to the drain valve (V4) and

immerse the other end in a tank of distilled
water. The distilled water must be pure and
free of impurities.
– Valves V8, V5, V3, V4 and V6 are closed.
– Build up negative pressure: Open V3 and sup-
ply the water jet pump with water. Open V6 and
evacuate tank to approx. 0.4 bar.
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– Close valves V6 and V3.

– Open the filling and drain valve V4. The dis-
tilled water is sucked into the tank. Fill up the
tank as far as the mark (approx. 4 cm above the
heating coil).

NOTICE
Insufficient water in the tank results in overheating of
the heater. Too much water leads to severe, abrupt
splash up onto the condensers.

3 Unit description 15
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.3.2 Removing air from tank B1

– Allow water to flow through the two condensers

at a low flow rate.
– Open the valve V8 to allow pressure compen-
sation to the atmosphere.
– Turn on the heater and heat to around 80°C
(T7) at half power (50%).
– Turn off the heater 0%.
– Close the valve V8.
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– Evacuate the tank using the water jet pump

until the pressure settles at approx. 0,3 bar. As
the pressure falls, significant boiling occurs. To
evacuate using the water jet pump, open the
ball valve V3 and the valve V6.
– Turn on the heater to bring the water vapour to
the required temperature (heater 75% =>
approx. 100°C).
– If necessary, activate the water jet pump again.
– Before or after the next experiment, the con-
densate should be transferred from the tank B2
to the tank B1 by opening the valve V5. The
condensate flows under gravity. The valve V5
should be closed again after approx. 10 s. A
rise in the water level can only be observed if
the water has a smooth surface.

3 Unit description 16
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.3.3 Adjusting the cooling

The cooling water flow rate through the condens-

ers is adjusted using the valves V1 and V2.
The flow can be read on the displays F1 and F2 in
L/h.

Condensation form

Dropwise condensa-
Film condensation
tion

Surface Copper Gold

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Cooling water valve V1 V2

Flow display F1 F2

Water inlet temperature T1 T4

Water outlet temperature T2 T5

Surface temperature T3 T6

Tab. 3.1 Assignment of condensers and measured variables

3 Unit description 17
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.3.4 Cleaning the condenser surface

Removing the condensers

1. Only carry out cleaning when the unit is cold.

WARNING
Tank, cooling vessel and water separator can
reach up to 100°C.
Risk of scalding.
• Never touch during operation.
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• Wear suitable gloves.

• Allow the unit to cool before opening the drain
valve.

2. Equalize the pressure in the tank, open V8.

3. Turn off the power supply to the unit, unplug the
mains connector.
4. Remove the rear panel.
5. Push through the cables for the two thermo-
couples (T6, T3) from inside the switch cabinet
so that there is enough loose cable when
detaching the condensers. Do not detach the
thermocouples (T6, T3) from the condensers.
6. Detach the thermocouples (T2, T5) on the left
and right of the lid of tank B1 and completely
unscrew them from the fitting.

Fig. 3.7 Condenser with gold plated

surface

3 Unit description 18
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

NOTICE
Step 6 must always be carried out before step 7.
Otherwise the thermocouples (T2, T5) may be
destroyed.
It is essential to ensure that nothing falls into tank
B1.

7. Unscrew the two screws on the copper or gold

To press out To secure
condenser (M5) using a hexagon socket
wrench. Place the washers securely to one
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side. Then screw the hexagon socket screws

without washers into the adjacent tapped holes
so that the condenser can be evenly pushed
out upwards. Carefully remove the condenser
T2 T5
from the tank B1. Do not kink or bend the ther-
To secure mocouples.
To press out
8. Carefully and gently clean the surface. The
Fig. 3.8 Tank lid from above
gold surface is very thin, just a few μm, and
should only be cleaned with a dry, clean and
soft cloth. Finally, the surface should be
cleaned with alcohol.

Installing the condensers

1. Unscrew the two hexagon socket screws from
the threads in the condensers.
2. Carefully insert the condenser loosely into the
lid of the tank B1 without the hexagon socket
screws. Carefully secure the condenser using
the hexagon socket screws and washers. This
presses the condensers into the lid. Make sure
that the O-rings are not damaged.
3. Insert the thermocouples (T2, T5) on the left
and right sides of the tank lid B1 into the hole

3 Unit description 19
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

with the screw fitting and secure them (do not

exert excessive force).
4. Feed excess cable for the thermocouples (T3,
T6) into the switch cabinet and close the rear
panel.
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3 Unit description 20
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.4 Measurement data acquisition

3.4.1 Software installation

The following are needed for the installation:

• A fully operational PC with USB port
(for minimum requirements see Chapter 6.1)
• G.U.N.T. CD-ROM
All components necessary to install and run the
software are included on the CD-ROM supplied
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by G.U.N.T.

Installation procedure

NOTICE
The trainer may not be connected to the USB port
on the PC during installation of the software. The
trainer may only be connected after the software
has been installed successfully.

• Start the PC.

• Insert the G.U.N.T. CD-ROM.
• Start the installation software "Start.bat".
• Follow the installation procedure on screen.
• Once started, the installation runs automati-
cally. The following software components are
installed on the PC:
– Software for PC-based measurement data
acquisition.
– LabVIEW Runtime and driver routines.
– G.U.N.T. libraries.
• After installation of the software, reboot the PC.

3 Unit description 21
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

3.4.2 Operating the program

• Select the program and launch it:

Start / Programs / G.U.N.T. / WL 230
• The language can be changed at any time in
the "Language" menu.
• Various pull-down menus are provided for
additional functions.
• For detailed instructions on use of the program
refer to its Help function. You can access the
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help function using the "?" button.

Saved measurement data can be imported into a

spreadsheet program (such as Microsoft Excel)
where it can be edited.

3 Unit description 22
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

4 Fundamental principles

The basic principles set out in the following make

no claim to completeness. For further theoretical
explanations, refer to the specialist literature.

Condensation
Physical condensation refers to the transition of a
substance from a gaseous to a liquid state of mat-
ter. The product is known as the condensate. This
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process occurs under particular pressure and

temperature conditions, referred to as the con-
densation point. The opposite of condensation is
evaporation. The evaporation heat applied during
evaporation is released back into the environment
during condensation.

Thermodynamic principles
Depending on the type of nucleation process, we
can distinguish between two basic types of con-
densation. In each case, the condition is that the
gas phase is over-saturated in terms of the con-
densing component. If individual gas particles
combine when they come together within the gas,
we refer to homogeneous condensation. To
achieve this, it is necessary for sufficient slow par-
ticles to come together to form larger structures
without the involvement of any boundary sur-
faces. This process is only possible at a high over-
saturation, normally of several hundred percent.
By contrast, for heterogeneous condensation only
very low oversaturation is required, often below
one percent. This form of condensation occurs on
existing surfaces, i.e. normally on solid particles
suspended in the gas phase, known as the con-

4 Fundamental principles 23
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

densation nuclei or aerosol particles. In terms of

the relevant gas, these act as a kind of particle
collector, with the radius and chemical properties
of the particle essentially determining how well
the gas particles adhere to it. This also applies to
surfaces of non-particulate bodies.
Condensation occurs when vapour comes into
contact with a wall whose temperature is lower
than the saturation temperature of the vapour,
and it is then precipitated as a liquid.
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The condensate can be discharged on the wall as

a closed liquid film or in the form of individual
drops. We therefore refer to film and dropwise
condensation. In practice, film condensation nor-
mally occurs. Dropwise condensation only occurs
on very smooth hydrophilic surfaces. With drop-
wise condensation, the heat transfer is far higher
than with film condensation, as there is no closed
Film Dropwise liquid film to insulate the vapour from the wall.
condensation condensation
Fig. 4.1 Condensation on vertical wall Because permanent smooth hydrophilic surfaces
are hard to achieve in practice, we usually use the
weaker but more reliable values for film conden-
sation.
On the experimental unit, one condenser is pol-
ished and gold-plated to obtain a permanent
hydrophilic surface. The surface must also be
absolutely clean. Therefore, only pure distilled
water is to be used.

4 Fundamental principles 24
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

4.1 Vapour pressure depending on temperature

The dependency of pressure and temperature in

the boundary transition from gas to liquid is
expressed using the Clapeyron-Clausius formula:
It states that:
dp
r = h '' – h ' = T   s '' – s '  = T   v '' – v '   ------- (4.1)
dT

Rearranging, this gives:

 dp- Clapeyron equation
------s- = ------ (4.2)
v
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dT
If the gas is viewed as approximately ideal, ignor-
ing the volume v' of the liquid phase and with the
gas equation:
RT
v ''  ------------ 
p
Inserting Formula (4.3) into Formula (4.1):
2
R  T dp
r = h '' – h '  ----------------  ------- (4.4)
dT p

Rearranged:
dp r  dT- Clausius-Clapeyron equation (4.5)
------- = ---------------
p 2
RT
Integrating in the boundaries p0 and p1:
p1 T1
1 r
 --p- dp =  ---------------
RT
- dT
2
(4.6)
p0 T0

Solving this differential equation gives the rela-

tionship between pressure p, temperature T and
evaporation enthalpy r.
T1
r 1
ln p 1 – ln p 0 = ---- 
R  -------
T
2
dT (4.7)
T0

4 Fundamental principles 25
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

p
ln -----1- = ----   – -----
r 1- 
1- + ----- (4.8)
p0 R  T1 T0 

p
ln -----1- = ----   -----
r 1- 
1- – ----- (4.9)
p0 R  T1 T0 

---r-   ----- 1- 
1- – -----
R  T0 T1 
p1 = p0  e (4.10)

T - 
---r-   ---------------
R  T0  T1 
p1 = p0  e (4.11)
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As it is very difficult to identify the dependency of

temperature and pressure from this equation, Fig.
4.2 shows a curve that plots the vapour pressure
against the temperature.

1,4
Pressure in bar

1,2

1,0

0,8
liquid

0,6
vapour
0,4

0,2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Temperature in °C
Fig. 4.2 Vapour pressure against temperature

4 Fundamental principles 26
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

4.2 Coefficient of heat transfer

The film condensation has been calculated theo-

y
retically for laminar and turbulent condensate dis-
Steam charge. Because of the small dimensions of the
experimental condenser, laminar condensate dis-
h
charge occurs. For condensation of latent satu-
T rated vapour on vertical surfaces at low pressures
(  liquid >>  gas) the relationship for the coefficient
Ts of heat transfer is given by:
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Tw 3
 gr -
 lam ,vertical = 0 ,943  4 --------------------------------------
  h   Ts – Tw 
Nusselt equation
m
Here,  is thermal conductivity,  is the density
and  is the viscosity of the liquid film, h is the
Wall
height of the wall, Ts - Tw is the difference
Condensate between the saturated vapour and the wall tem-
perature, and r is the evaporation enthalpy of the
x
liquid. For water, r = 2319,2 kJ/kg. The conductiv-
ity, density and viscosity at the mean liquid tem-
Fig. 4.3 Temperature curve for film perature should be used.
condensation
Ts + Tw
T liquid ,a = -------------------
- (4.12)
2
For film condensation, the coefficient of heat
transfer can take values of between 1 and
10kW/m2K. For dropwise condensation, this
value can increase to 100 kW/m2K.
For experimental determination of the coefficient
of heat transfer  m , the transferred thermal power
·
Q is determined and set in relation to the heat
exchanger surface A and the temperature differ-
ence (Ts - Tw).
·
Q
 m = -------------------------------
- (4.13)
A   Ts – Tw 

4 Fundamental principles 27
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

The transferred power is determined using the

cooling water flow.
· ·  c   T – T  =   V·  c   T – T 
Q = m p out in p out in (4.14)

·
Here, V is the cooling water flow, Tout is the outlet
temperature and Tin is the inlet temperature of the
cooling water. The heat capacity cp and density 
for the mean cooling water temperature should be
used.
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T in + T out
T cooling ,a = -----------------------
- (4.15)
2

4.3 Heat flux density and heat transition coefficient

Other important characteristic values for assess-

ing a condenser are the heat flux density q· and
the heat transition coefficient k. The heat flux den-
sity specifies the load on the condenser surface.
·
· Q
q = ---- (4.16)
A
The heat transition coefficient k relates the heat
flux to the difference between the vapour temper-
ature and the mean cooling water temperature.
·
Q
k = ------------------------------------------------
- (4.17)
A   T s – T cooling ,a 

4 Fundamental principles 28
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

5 Experiments

The selection of experiments makes no claims of

completeness but is intended to be used as a
stimulus for your own experiments.
The results shown are intended as a guide only.
Depending on the construction of the individual
components, experimental skills and environmen-
tal conditions, deviations may occur in the experi-
ments. Nevertheless, the laws can be clearly
demonstrated.
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5.1 Determining the coefficient of heat transfer for water vapour

5.1.1 Aim of experiment

To determine the coefficient of heat transfer for

water at normal atmospheric pressure.
When using PC-based measurement data acqui-
sition, the coefficient of heat transfer for both con-
densers is continuously displayed in the calcula-
tion module. The procedure for operation without
measurement data acquisition is briefly outlined
here.

5.1.2 Preparing the experiment

Before the actual experiment, the glass cylinder

must be vented. When cold and under atmos-
pheric pressure, both liquid and air can be found
in the tank. The air would significantly inhibit sub-
sequent heat transfer to the condenser.
Remove the air from the tank B1, see
Chapter 3.3.2.

5 Experiments 29
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

5.1.3 Performing the experiment and evaluation

– Heat up the tank to 90...100°C. You can check

that there are no leaks using the vapour pres-
sure table (Chapter 6.2).
– Adjust the cooling water flow rate for both con-
densation tubes so that the required difference
between the surface temperature (T3. T6) and
the vapour temperature (T7) is obtained.
– Adjust the heating power so that the vapour
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temperature remains constant.

– If necessary, adjust the cooling water flow
again to correct the temperature difference
(T7 - T3 or T7 - T6).
– The condensation process on the condensa-
tion tubes can be clearly observed.
– Read off, note and evaluate all temperatures
and flow rates.

5.2 Further experiments

5.2.1 Influence of non-condensing gases

If non-condensing gases are present, the coeffi-

cient of heat transfer falls sharply. This effect can
be demonstrated by mixing in air.
– Use the water jet pump to create a negative
pressure (approx. 0,5 bar).
– Open the drain valve V4 and allow air to enter.
– At a pressure of 0,9 bar close the drain valve
again.
Then determine the coefficient of heat transfer as
shown in Fig. 5.1. It will now be significantly lower.

5 Experiments 30
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

5.2.2 Influence of pressure

Record a measurement series at lower tempera-

tures and pressures. For example, at a pressure
of 0,5 bar the boiling temperature is around 81° C.
The coefficient of heat transfer is reduced.
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5 Experiments 31
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

6 Appendix

6.1 Technical data

Dimensions
Length x Width x Height 1000 x 560 x 800 mm
Weight 90 kg

Power supply
Voltage 230 V
Frequency 50 Hz
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Phases 1 phase
Nominal consumption (power) 3,2 kW
Optional alternatives, see rating plate

Cold water supply

Cold water requirement, continuous 400 L/h
Cold water requirement, temporary 720 L/h
Cold water pressure, minimum 3 bar

Process vessel
Volume: 3,8 L
Evaporation liquid: Distilled water
Capacity: Approx. 1,1 L
Pressure range: 0,1...1,0 bar abs.

Safety equipment
Pressostat, pressure switch 1,0 bar rel.
Safety valve 2,2 bar abs.

Water jet air pump

Water flow 240...720 L/h
Final vacuum at 0,5bar water pressure
and 14°C water temperature 16 mbar

6 Appendix 32
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Condenser
Diameter: 12 mm
Length: 107 mm
Surface area: 42,6 cm2
Surface quality:
Dropwise condensation: Gold, polished
Film condensation: Copper, matt
Cooling water flow rate: 0...200 L/h
in each case
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Heater
Heating power: Adjustable 0...3000 W

Measured variables and displays

Temperature
Cooling water inlet and outlet
Pt100 sensor with transmitter
Measuring range: 0...200 °C
Steam temperature
Pt100 sensor with transmitter
Measuring range: 0...200 °C
Condenser surface
Thermocouple K with transmitter
Measuring range: 0...200 °C
Flow rate
Measuring turbine with transmitter
Measuring range: 12...320 L/h
Pressure
Electronic pressure sensor
Measuring range: 0...4 bar abs.
Level
Measuring principle: Capacitive
Monitoring of water level above heater
Indicators
LCD displays 3 1/2 digit

6 Appendix 33
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Minimum requirements for measurement data acquisition

Communication: USB
Program environment: LAB-VIEW Runtime
System requirements:
PC with Pentium IV processor, 1 GHz
Minimum 1024 MB RAM
Minimum 1 GB available memory on hard disk
1 CD-ROM drive
1 USB port
Graphics card with min. resolution 1024 x 768 pixels, True Color
Operating system: Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8
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6 Appendix 34
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

6.2 Vapour pressure table for water

Tempera- Pressure Tempera- Pressure

ture ture

in °C in bar in mbar in Torr in °C in bar in mbar in Torr

0 0,006 6,1 4,579 25 0,032 31,66 23,756

1 0,007 6,57 4,926 26 0,034 33,6 25,209

2 0,007 7,06 5,294 27 0,036 35,64 26,739

3 0,008 7,58 5,685 28 0,038 37,79 28,349

4 0,008 8,13 6,101 29 0,040 40,04 30,043

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5 0,009 8,72 6,543 30 0,042 42,42 31,824

6 0,009 9,35 7,013 31 0,045 44,91 33,695

7 0,010 10,01 7,513 32 0,048 47,54 35,663

8 0,011 10,72 8,045 33 0,050 50,29 37,729

9 0,011 11,47 8,609 34 0,053 53,18 39,898

10 0,012 12,27 9,209 35 0,056 56,21 42,175

11 0,013 13,12 9,844 36 0,059 59,4 44,563

12 0,014 14,02 10,518 37 0,063 62,74 47,067

13 0,015 14,97 11,231 38 0,066 66,23 49,692

14 0,016 15,98 11,987 39 0,070 69,9 52,442

15 0,017 17,05 12,788 40 0,074 73,74 55,324

16 0,018 18,17 13,634 41 0,078 77,76 58,34

17 0,019 19,37 14,53 42 0,082 81,97 61,5

18 0,021 20,63 15,477 43 0,086 85,97 64,5

19 0,022 21,96 16,477 44 0,091 90,98 68,26

20 0,023 23,37 17,535 45 0,096 95,81 71,88

21 0,025 24,86 18,65 46 0,101 100,8 75,65

22 0,026 26,43 19,827 47 0,106 106,1 79,6

23 0,028 28,08 21,068 48 0,112 111,6 83,71

24 0,030 29,83 22,377 49 0,117 117,3 88,02

Tab. 6.1

6 Appendix 35
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Tempera- Pressure Tempera- Pressure

ture ture

in °C in bar in mbar in Torr in °C in bar in mbar in Torr

50 0,123 123,3 92,51 76 0,402 401,7 301,4

51 0,130 129,6 97,2 77 0,419 418,7 314,1

52 0,136 136,1 102,09 78 0,436 436,3 327,3

53 0,143 142,9 107,2 79 0,455 454,5 341

54 0,150 150 112,51 80 0,473 473,3 355,1

55 0,157 157,3 118,04 81 0,493 492,8 369,7

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56 0,165 165 123,8 82 0,513 513 384,9

57 0,173 173 129,82 83 0,534 534 400,6

58 0,181 181,4 136,08 84 0,556 555,6 416,8

59 0,190 190,1 142,6 85 0,578 577,9 433,6

60 0,199 199,1 149,38 86 0,601 601 450,9

61 0,209 208,5 156,43 87 0,625 624,7 468,7

62 0,218 218,3 163,77 88 0,649 649,3 487,1

63 0,228 228,4 171,38 89 0,675 674,6 506,1

64 0,239 239 179,31 90 0,701 700,8 525,76

65 0,250 250 187,54 91 0,728 727,8 546,05

66 0,261 261,4 196,09 92 0,756 755,7 566,99

67 0,273 273,2 204,96 93 0,785 784,5 588,6

68 0,285 285,5 214,17 94 0,814 814,3 610,9

69 0,298 298,2 223,73 95 0,845 844,9 633,9

70 0,311 311,5 233,7 96 0,877 876,5 657,62

71 0,325 325,1 243,9 97 0,909 909,1 682,07

72 0,339 339,4 254,6 98 0,943 942,7 707,27

73 0,345 354,2 265,7 99 0,977 977,3 733,24

74 0,369 369,5 277,2 100 1,013 1013 760

75 0,385 385,3 289,1 101 1,050 1050 787,6

Tab. 6.1

6 Appendix 36
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Tempera- Pressure Tempera- Pressure

ture ture

in °C in bar in mbar in Torr in °C in bar in mbar in Torr

102 1,088 1088 815,9 111 1,481 1481 1111,2

103 1,126 1126 845,1 112 1,531 1531 1148,8

104 1,166 1166 875,1 113 1,583 1583 1187,5

105 1,208 1208 906,1 114 1,636 1636 1227,3

106 1,250 1250 937,9 115 1,690 1690 1268

107 1,294 1294 970,6 116 1,746 1746 1309,9

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108 1,339 1339 1004,4 117 1,803 1803 1352,9

109 1,385 1385 1038,9 118 1,862 1862 1397,2

110 1,432 1432 1074,6 119 1,923 1923 1442,6

Tab. 6.1

6 Appendix 37
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

6.3 Water vapour table

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Fig. 6.1 Vapour table for water

6 Appendix 38
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

6.4 List of key symbols and units used

Symbol Mathematical/physical variable Unit

A Condenser surface m2

cp Specific heat capacity kJ/kgK

g Gravitational acceleration m/s2

h Specific enthalpy kJ/kg

h Height of condenser m

h‘ Specific enthalpy of water kJ/kg

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h‘‘ Specific enthalpy of steam kJ/kg

k Heat transition coefficient W/m2K

·
m Mass flow rate kg/s

p Pressure absolute (vapour table) bar, N/m2

q· Heat flux density J/m2

·
Q Heat flux J/s, W

r Evaporation enthalpy kJ/kg

R General gas constant kJ/molK

s Entropy kJ/kgK

s‘ Specific entropy of water kJ/kgK

s‘‘ Specific entropy of steam kJ/kgK

T Temperature °C, K

Tcooling,a Mean cooling water temperature °C, K

Tliquid,a Mean temperature of liquid film °C, K

t Temperature (vapour table) °C

v‘ Specific volume of water m3/kg

v‘‘ Specific volume of steam m3/kg

·
V Volumetric flow m3/s

 Coefficient of heat transfer kJ/m2K

m Coefficient of heat transfer at point m kJ/m2K

 Thermal conductivity W/m2K

6 Appendix 39
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Symbol Mathematical/physical variable Unit

 Viscosity m2/s

 Density kg/m3

'' Density of steam kg/m3

Index Explanation

a Average

cooling In cooling circuit

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gas Gas

in Inward

in Supplied

lam Laminar

out Outward

out Emitted

s Saturated steam

liquid Liquid

vertical Vertical

w Wall

6 Appendix 40
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

Symbol Name

Valve

Safety valve

Cooler (heat exchanger)

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Vessel with heater (bottom)

and two cooling rods (heat exchangers) for condensation (top)

Water jet pump

Tank (condensate separator)

6 Appendix 41
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

6.5 List of code letters in process schematic

Code let- Name

ter

Equipment and machines

B Tank, bunker, silo, vessel

P Pump

W Heat exchanger

Fittings

V Fitting, general
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Tab. 6.2 Code letters for equipment, machines, fittings and pipes

Code let- Measured variable or other input variable, actu- Processing

ter ator

As first letter As additional letter As following letter

(sequence I, R, C)

F Flow, throughput Ratio

I Display

L (Liquid) Level Lower limit (low)

(including separating
layer)

P Pressure

S Rate, Circuit, process control,

speed, frequency logic control

T Temperature Measuring transducer

function

Tab. 6.3 Code letters for measuring points

6 Appendix 42
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

6.6 Tables and diagrams

Unit mm3 cm3 L m3

1mm3 1 0,001 0,000001 0,000000001

1cm3 1,000 1 0,001 0,000001

1L 1.000.000 1.000 1 0,001

1m3 1.000.000.000 1.000.000 1.000 1

Tab. 6.4 Conversion table for units of volume

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Unit L/s L/min L/h m3/min m3/h

1 L/s 1 60 3600 0,06 3,6

1 L/min 0,01667 1 60 0,001 0,06

1 L/h 0,000278 0,01667 1 0,00001667 0,001

1m3/min 16,667 1000 0,0006 1 60

1m3/h 0,278 16,667 1000 0,01667 1

Tab. 6.5 Conversion table for volumetric flow units

Unit bar mbar Pa hPa kPa mm WC *

1 bar 1 1.000 100.000 1.000 100 10.000

1 mbar 0,001 1 100 1 0,1 10

1 Pa 0,00001 0,01 1 0,01 0,001 0,1

1hPa 0,001 1 100 1 0,1 10

1 kPa 0,01 10 1.000 10 1 100

1 mm WC * 0,0001 0,1 10 0,1 0,01 1

Tab. 6.6 Conversion table for pressure units

* Rounded values

6 Appendix 43
 WL 230 CONDENSATION PROCESS

6.7 Worksheets

Name:

Date:

Temperature difference surface - steam

Pressure:

Influence of non-condensing gases:

Film condensation - Copper Dropwise condensation -

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Gold

Cooling water inlet temperature T1 T4

Cooling water outlet temperature T2 T5

Surface temperature T3 T6

Cooling water flow rate F1 F2

Steam temperature T7

Surface area of condenser A 0,00426 m2

Density of water  
Specific heat capacity of water cp cp

Tab. 6.7 Worksheet for recording measured data

6 Appendix 44