Section 2 Comfort: The desirable conditions 39

2.1 Thermal comfort factors

2.2 Thermal comfort indices
2.3 Effective temperature - its use
2.1 Thermal comfort factors 41

2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 The body's heat production
2.1.3 The body's heat loss
2.1.4 Regulatory mechanisms
2.1.5 Heat loss in various thermal environments
2.1.6 Calm, warm air, moderate humidity
2.1.7 Hot air and considerable radiation
2.1.8 Hot air, radiation and appreciable air movement
2.1.9 Saturated, still air, above body temperature
2.1.10 Effects of prolonged exposure
2.1.11
'..
Subjective variables

2.1.1 Our daily life cycle comprises states of activity, fatigue and recovery. It is essential
Introduction that the mind and body recovers through recreation, rest and sleep to counter-
balance the mental and physical fatigue resulting from activities of the day [19].
This cycle can be and is often impeded by unfavourable climatic conditions and
the resulting stress on body and mind causesdiscomfort, loss of efficiency and may
eventually lead to a breakdown of health. The effect of climate on man, is therefore,
a factor of considerable importance [20].
The task of the designer is to create the best possible indoor climate (it is not
feasible to regulate out-door conditions). The occupants of a building judge the
quality of the design from a physical as well as an emotional point of view. Accumu-
lated sensations of well-being or discomfort contribute to our total verdict on the
house in which we live and the school. office or factory where we work. It is a
challenge for the designer to strive towards the optimum of total comfort, which
may be defined as the sensation of complete physical and mental well-being.
Considerable information has by now been published on the physical side; but far
less on the emotional aspects of our environment.
Criteria of total comfort depend upon each of the human senses. In the
following paragraphs, while the subjective-emotional relationships with our
.environment may be mentioned, the main emphasis is placed upon human thermal
comfort, which is the dominant problem in tropical climates. The physiological
responses to specific climatic conditions, here described, can be verified by
controlled experiments.
Interest in establishing thermal comfort criteria dates back in Europe about 150
 years, to the beginning of -the nineteenth century, when it started with the move-
ment for the reform of conditions in industry and housing. Basic warmth criteria
were first established in the mining, metal and textile industries, as accidents and
illness due to heat and humidity stresses were formerly quite common.
Human response to the thermal environment does no\ depend on air temperature
alone. It has been established beyond doubt that air temperature, humidity, radiation
and air movement all produce thermal effects, and must be considered simultaneously
if human responses are to be predicted. To appreciate the effect of these climatic
factors, it is necessary to examine briefly the basic thermal processes of the human
body.

2.1.2 H.,at is continuously produced by the body. Most of the biochemical processes
The body's involved in tissue-building, energy conversion and muscular work are exotherm,
heat Le. heat producing. All energy and material requ:'dments of the body are supplied
production from the consumption and digestion of food. The processes involved in converting
foodstuff into living mattef and useful form of energy are known as metabolism [20].
The total meiabolic heat production can be divided into basal metabolism, Le.
the heat production of vegetative, automatic processes which are continuous, and
the museu!"'J f'ietabolism, i.e. the heat production of muscles whilst carrying out
consciously controlled work. Of all the energy produced in the body, only about
20% is utilised, the remaining 80% is 'surplus' heat and must be dissipated to the
environment.
This excess heat production varies with the overall metabolic rate, and depends
on the activity. The following table indicates the rate of excess heat output of the
body in various activities.

Activity watts

Sleeping min. 70
Sitting, moderate movement, e.g. typing 130-160
Standing, light work at machine or bench 160-190

Sitting, heavy arm and leg movements 190-230

Standing, moderate work, some walking 220-290
Walking, moderate lifting or pushing 290-410

Intermittent heavy lifting, digging 440-580

Hardest sustained work 580-700
Maximum heavy work for 30-minutes duration max. 1100

(Average values of data published in many sources)

2.1.3 The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant around 37 'C. In
order to maintain body temperature at this steady level, all surplus heat must be
The body's
dissipated to the environment [21]. If there is some form of simultaneous heat gain
heat loss
from the environment (e.g. solar radiation or warm air) that also must be dissipated.
The "body can release heat to its environment by convection, radiation and
evaporation - and to a lesser extent by conduction (Figure 26) [22].
Convection is due t<>heat transmission from the body to the air in contact with
the skin or clothing which then rises and is replaced by cooler air. The rate of con-
vective heat loss is increased by a faster rate of air movement, by a lower air tem-
perature and a higher skin temperature.
Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the
temperature of opposing surfaces.
Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation, which in turn
depends on the humidity of air (the dryer the air, the faster the evaporation) and
on the amount of moisture available for evaporation. Evaporation takes place in
the lungs tl)rough breathing, and on the skin as imperCeptible perspiration and
sweat.
Fig 26 43
Body heat exchange

Conduction

Conduction depends on the temperature difference between the body surface

and the object the body is in direct contact with.

2.1.4 The thermal balance of the body is shown by Figure 27 [22] and can be expressed
by an equation. If the heat gain and heat loss factors are:
Regulatory
mechanisms Gain: Met = metabolism (basal and muscular)
Cnd = conduction (contact with warm bodies)
Cnv = convection (if the air is warmer than the skin)
Rad = radiation (from the sun, the sky and hot bodies)
Loss: Cnd = conduction (contact with cold bodies)
Cnv = convection (if the air is cooler than the skin)
Rad = radiation (to night sky and cold surfaces)
Evp = evaporation (of moisture and sweat)
then thermal balance exists when

Met -Evp ±Cnd ±Cnv ±Rad = 0

Fig 27 Deep body

Thermal balance of temperature
the body

Convection
Conduction
Radiation
Shivering Evaporation
Basal- Radiation
metabolism Convection
Activity Conduction
 As soon as this sum is more than zero, vasomotor adjustments will take place:
blood circulation to the skin surface is increased, more heat ;s transported to the
surface and the skin temperature is elevated - all forms of heat loss processes are
accelerated. Conversely, if the sum of the above equation is less than zero, the blood
circulation to the skin is reduced, skin temperature is lowered and the heat loss
processes are slowed down.
If the vasomotor regulation is still insufficient, and overheating continues, sweat-
ing will start. The rate of sweating may vary from about 20 glh to 3 kglh during
periods cf physical effort combined with hot environmental effects [23]"
If, in a cold environment, underheating continues in spite of vasomotor adjust-
ments, violent shivering may occur, which can cause a ten-fold increase in metabolic
heat production for short periods.
Long-term, endocrine adjustments constitute the acciimatisation process. These
may involve the change in the basal metabolic heat production, an increase in the
quantity of blood (to produce and maintain a constant vaso-dilation) and an
increase in sweat rate.

2.1.5 In classifying tropical climates into six categories (1.3.2) and in discussing devia-
Heat loss in tions of the site climate, the importance of the four basic factors has been empha-
various sised which would directly affect human comfort, namely: air temperature, humidity,
thermal air movement and radiation. The importance of these factors should now be obvious:
each influences in some way the heat exchange processes between the human body
environments
and its environment; each may aid or impede the dissipation of surplus heat from
the body. For example high air temperature is a definite obstacle to heat dissipation
by convection (it may even produce a heat input, if warmer than the skin), and
simultaneous high humidity may impede the heat loss by evaporation [24].
The following paragraphs will examine how these four climatic variables affect
the heat dissipation processes of the human body for various indoor conditions.

2.1.6 In a temperilte climate, indoors, when the air temperature is around 18 ·C, when the
Calm, warm air is calm, i.e. air velocity does not exceed 0·25 mis, and when the humidity is
air, moderate between 40 and 60%, a person engaged in sedentary work will dissipate the
humidity surplus heat without any difficulty, in the following ways:
by radiation 45%
by convection 30%
by evaporation 25%

if the temperature of bounding surfaces is approximately the same as the air

temperature [25].

2.1.7 The normal skin temperature is between 31 and 34 ·C. As the air temperature
Hot air and approaches skin temperature, convective heat loss gradually decreases. Vasomotor
considerable regulation will increase the skin temperature to the higher limit (34 ·C), but when
radiation the air temperature reaches this point, there will be no more convective heat loss.
As long as the average temperature of opposing surfaces is below skin tempera-
ture, there will be some radiation heat loss, but as the surface temperature increases,
radiation losses are diminished. Radiant heat from the sun or a hot body (a radiator
or fire) can be a substantial heat gain factor.
When both the convective and radiant elements in the heat exchange process
are positive, bodily thermal balance may still be maintained by evaporation (but
only by evaporation) up to a limit, provided the air is sufficiently dry to permit a
high evaporation rate .

• As th~ lat~nt h~at of wat~r is 2400 kJ/kg, th~ ~vaporation rate of 1 kg/h will produce a heat loss rate of
2400000/3600 = 666 W.
2.1.8 When the air is hot (equal to or above skin temperature) so that the convection 45
Hot air, element is positive, when the surface temperatures are warm or there is a substantial
radiation and radiant heat source, so that the radiant element is also positive, and when the air is
humid (but less than 100% RH) the movement of air will accelerate evaporation,
appreciable thus increase heat dissipation, even if its temperature is higher than that of the skin.
air movement The mechanism is as follows: if the air is at approximately 90% RH, it will take on
some humidity by evaporation from the skin, but the thin (1 to 2 em) layer of air in
immediate contact with the skin soon will become saturated and this saturated air
envelope will prevent any further evaporation from the skin. Moving air will remove
this saturated air envelope and the evaporation process can continue. It hilS been
estimated [26] that over 2000 N/m2 vapour p,essure, every 1 m/s increase in air
velocity will compensate for an increase of 300 N/m2 in vapour pressure.
When the air is completely saturated and warmer than the skin, air movement
would only increase discomfort and heat gain. Fortunately such conditions are
seldom met in nature. Even in warm-humid regions the highest humidities are
experienced when air temperature is below skin temperature, whilst the highest
temperatures are accompanied by moderate humidities.

2.1.9 Let us assume a situation, where the air temperature and the temperature of surfaces
Saturated, are above the skin temperature (over 34°C), where there is no appreciable air move-
still air, above ment (less than 0·25% m/s) and the relative humidity is near 100%. Sweating
would be profuse, but there would be no evaporation. There will be a COnvective
body
and radiation heat gain; therefore, however small is the metabolic heat production,
temperature all the elements in the thermal balance equation (2.1.4) would be positive.
The body temperature would begin to rise, and when the deep body temperature
has increased 2 or (maximum) 3 degC only, heat stroke would occur. This is a
circulatory failure, followed by a rapid increase in deep body temperature. When
this reaches about 41°C, coma sets in and death is imminent. At about 45 °C deep
body temperature, death is unavoidable.
Such conditions rarely, if ever, occur in nature, but can quite easily be produced
inside buildings of poor design and with bad management.

2.1.10 Even if the conditions are not bad enough to produce such immediate disastrous
Effects of effects, prolonged exposure to discomfort conditions can produce adverse effects.
prolonged Even if the physiological control mechanisms can maintain life (e.g. with a constant
high rate of sweating and permanent vaso-dilation) there is considerable loss of
exposure
efficiency in work coupled with physical strain.
Factors which may provide immediate relief, such as a high wind velocity, may
themselves become causes of irritation and discomfort when of a long duration [27].
Conditions which are perfectly comfortable, may produce adverse effects if
constant and there is no change at all over prolonged periods. One of the basic
needs of humans is change and variation, a fact which has been ignored by early
research workers. This point becomes particularly noticeable in mechanically con-
trolled environments, such as in air conditioned buildings, where the environmental
conditions can be and often are kept constant within very fine limits. What the
designer should aim at. is a range of comfort conditions, within which considerable
variations are permitted. Fortunately, in buildings without mechanical environ-
mental controls, such variations will be produced by the diurnal variation of climatic
factors.

2.1.11 The sensation of comfort or discomfort depends primarily on the four climatic
Subjective variables discussed in the foregoing. Thermal preferences are however influenced
variables by a number of subjective or individual factors.
Clothing can be varied at the discretion of the individual. A person wearing a
normal business suit and cotton underwear· will require a temperature about 9°C
lower than a naked body .
• This is taken as a unit of clothing, 1 clo. The maximum practicable, i.e. the heaviest arctic clothing is
4,5 cia.
 Acclimatisation has been mentioned i~ 2.1.4. Exposed to a new set of climatic
conditions, the human body will reach full adjustment in about 30 days and by ttiat
time the thermal preferences of the individual will change. (A person in London
may prefer an average room temperature of 18 ·C, but after spending a few months
in Lagos, may find the same temperature rather cool and would prefer a temperature
around 25 ·C.)
Age and sex may influence thermal preferences: the metabolism of older people
is slower, therefore they usually prefer higher temperatures. Women also have
slightly slower metabolic rates than men; their preference is on average 1 degC
higher than that of men.
Body shape, i.e. the surface to volume ratio, also has an effect. A thin person has
a much greater body surface than a short, corpulent person of the same weight,
can dissipate more heat and will tolerate and prefer a higher temperature.
Subcutaneous fat, i.e. fat under the skin, is an excellent thermal insulator. A fat
person will need a cooler air to dissipate the same amount of heat.
State of health also influences thermal requirements. In an illness the metabolic
rate may increase, but the proper functioning of the regulatory mechanisms may be
impaired. The tolerable range of temperatures will be narrower.
Food 'and drink of certain kinds may affect the metabolic rate, which may be a
reason for the difference in diet between tropical and arctic peoples.
Skin colour may influence radiation heat gain. It has been demonstrated [28]
that the lightest skin reflects about three times as much solar radiation as the
darkest - the light skin, ho.wever, is substantially more vulnerable to sunburn,
ulcers, cancer and other sun-caused damage. Dark skin contains appreciably more
melanin pigment, which prevents the penetration of damaging ultra-violet rays.
Dark skin also increases the heat emission from the body in the same proportion as
it affects absorption. Thus skin colour has no effect on thermal preferences, but is
more resistant to the damaging effects of sunshine.