Functions of the Lymphatic System  Lymphatics.

 The lymphatic vessels, also called

lymphatics, form a one-way system, and lymph
The functions of the lymphatic system are: flows only toward the heart.
 Lymph capillaries. The microscopic, blind-
1. Fluid balance. The lymphatic vessels transport ended lymph capillaries weave between the
back to the blood fluids that have escaped from tissue cells and blood capillaries in the loose
the blood vascular system. About 30 liters (L) of connective tissues of the body and absorb the
fluid pass from the blood capillaries into the leaked fluid.
interstitial spaces each day, whereas only 27 L  Minivalves. The edges of the endothelial cells
pass from the interstitial spaces back into the forming their walls loosely overlap one another,
blood capillaries. If the extra 3 L of interstitial forming flaplike mini-valves that act as one-way
fluid remained in the interstitial spaces, edema swinging doors; the flaps, anchored by fine
would result, causing tissue damage and collagen fibers to surrounding structures, gape
eventually death. The remaining fluid enters the open when the fluid pressure is higher in the
lymphatic capillaries, where the fluid is called interstitial space, allowing fluid to enter the
lymph. lymphatic capillary.
2. Fat absorption. The lymphatic system absorbs  Lymphatic collecting vessels. Lymph is
fats and other substances from the digestive transported from the lymph capillaries through
tract. Lacteals are special lymphatic vessels successively larger lymphatic vessels referred to
located in the lining of the small intestine. Fats as lymphatic collecting vessels, until it is finally
enter the lacteals and pass through the returned to the venous system through one of
lymphatic vessels to the venous circulation. the two large ducts in the thoracic region.
3. House of the body’s defenses. The lymphoid  Right lymphatic duct. The right lymphatic duct
tissues and organs house phagocytic cells drains the lymph from the right arm and the
and lymphocytes, which play essential roles in right side of the head and thorax.
body defense and resistance to disease.  Thoracic duct. The large thoracic duct receives
Lymphatic Vessels lymph from the rest of the body; both ducts
empty the lymph into the subclavian vein on
The function of the lymphatic vessels is to form an elaborate their own side of the body.
drainage system that picks up excess tissue fluid, now
called lymph.
Lymph Nodes daughter cells called plasma cells, which
release antibodies.
The lymph nodes in particular help protect the body by  T cells. The rest of the cortical cells are
removing foreign material such as bacteria and tumor cells lymphocytes “in transit”, the so-called T cells
from the lymphatic stream and by producing lymphocytes that that circulate continuously between the blood,
function in the immune response. lymph nodes and lymphatic stream, performing
their surveillance role.
 Macrophages. Within the lymph nodes are  Medulla. Phagocytic macrophages are located
macrophages, which engulf and destroy in the central medulla of the lymph node.
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances  Afferent lymphatic vessels. Lymph enters the
in the lymph before it is returned to the blood. convex side of a lymph node through the
 Lymphocytes. Collections of lymphocytes (a afferent lymphatic vessels.
type of white blood cell) are also strategically  Efferent lymphatic vessels. It then flows
located in the lymph nodes and respond to through a number of sinuses that cut through
foreign substances in the lymphatic stream. the lymph node and finally exits from the node
 Size and shape. Lymph nodes vary in size and at its indented region, the hilum, via the efferent
shape, but most are kidney-shaped, less than lymphatic vessels.
1 inch (approximately 2.5 cm) long, and Other Lymphoid Organs
“buried” in the connective tissue that surrounds
them. Lymph nodes are just one of the many types of lymphoid
 Trabeculae. Each node is surrounded by a organs in the body. Others are the spleen, thymus gland,
fibrous capsule from which strands called tonsils, and Peyer’s patches of the intestine, as well as bits of
trabeculae extend inward to divide the node lymphoid tissue scattered in the epithelial and connective
into a number of compartments. tissues.
 Cortex. The outer part of the node, the cortex,
contains collections of lymphocytes Spleen 
called follicles, many of which have dark-
staining centers called germinal centers. The spleen is a soft, blood-rich organ that filters blood.
 Plasma cells. These centers enlarge when
specific lymphocytes (the B cells) are generating  Location. The spleen is located on the left side
of the abdominal cavity, just beneath the
 diaphragm, and curls around the anterior aspect  Tonsilitis. They carry out this function so
of the stomach. efficiently that sometimes they become
 Function. Instead of filtering lymph, the spleen congested with bacteria and become red,
filters and cleanses the blood of bacteria, swollen, and sore, a condition called tonsilitis.
viruses, and other debris; it provides a site for Peyer’s Patches
lymphocyte proliferation and immune
surveillance, but its most important function is Peyer’s patches resemble the look of the tonsils.
to destroy worn-out red blood cells and return
some of their breakdown products to the liver. Location. Peyer’s patches are found in the wall
 Fetal spleen. In the fetus, the spleen is an of the small intestine.
important hematopoietic (blood cell-forming)  Function. The macrophages of Peyer’s patches
site, but as a rule only lymphocytes are are in an ideal position to capture and destroy
produced by the adult spleen. bacteria (always present in tremendous
Thymus Gland numbers in the intestine), thereby preventing
them from penetrating the intestinal wall.
The thymus gland functions at peak levels only during youth.  Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue. Peyer’s
patches and the tonsils are part of the collection
 Location. The thymus gland is a lymphoid mass of small lymphoid tissues referred to as
found low in the throat overlying the heart. mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT);
 Functions. The thymus gland produces MALT acts as a sentinel to protect the upper
thymosin and others, that function in the respiratory and digestive tracts from the never-
programming of certain lymphocytes so they ending attacks of foreign matter entering those
can carry out their protective roles in the body. cavities.
Tonsils Body Defenses

The tonsils are small masses of lymphoid tissue that ring the The body’s defenders against these tiny but mighty enemies
pharynx (the throat), where they are found in the mucosa. are two systems, simply called the innate and the adaptive
defense systems; together, they make up the immune system.
 Function. Their job is to trap and remove any
bacteria or other foreign pathogens entering
the throat.
Innate Defense System females are also very acidic; (2) the stomach
mucosa secretes hydrochloric
The innate defense system, also called the non-specific acid and protein-digesting enzymes, both kill
defense system, responds immediately to protect the body pathogens; (3) Saliva and lacrimal fluid
from all foreign substances, whatever they are. contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys
bacteria; and (4) sticky mucus traps many
Definition. The term innate or nonspecific body microorganisms that enter digestive and
defense refers to the mechanical barriers that respiratory passageways.
cover body surfaces and to the cells and  Structural modifications. Mucus-coated
chemicals that act on the initial battlefronts to hairs inside the nasal cavity trap inhaled
protect the body from invading pathogens. particles, and the respiratory tract mucosa
Surface Membrane Barriers is ciliated; the cilia sweep dust- and bacteria-
laden mucus superiorly toward the mouth,
The body’s first line of defense against the invasion of disease- preventing it from entering the lungs.
causing microorganisms is the skin and mucous membranes.  Damage. Although surface barriers are quite
effective, they are broken from time to time by
small nicks and cuts resulting, for example from
 Skin. As long as the skin is unbroken, its
brushing the teeth or shaving, so
keratinized epidermis is a strong physical barrier
microorganisms invade deeper tissues, and then
to most microorganisms that swarm on the skin.
the internal innate mechanisms come into play.
 Mucous membranes. Intact mucous
Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals
membranes provide similar mechanical barriers
within the body; recall that mucous membranes
For its second line of defense, the body uses an enormous
line all body cavities open to the exterior: the
number of cells and chemicals to protect itself.
digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts.
 Protective secretions. Besides serving as  Phagocytes. Pathogens that make it through
physical barriers, these membranes produce  a the mechanical barriers are confronted by
variety of protective secretion: (1) the acidic pH phagocytes, such as a macrophage or
of skin secretions (pH of 3-5) inhibits bacterial neutrophil, engulfs a foreign particle much the
growth, and sebum contains chemicals that are way an amoeba ingests a food particle; flowing
toxic to bacteria; vaginal secretions of adult cytoplasmic extensions bind to the particle and
 then pull it inside, enclosing it in a vacuole; the (3) Urine has a normally acidic pH that inhibits
vacuole is then fused with the enzymatic bacterial growth, and cleanses the lower urinary
contents of a lysosome, and its contents are tract as it flushes from the body.
broken down, or digested.  Fever. Fever, or abnormally high body
 Natural killer cells. Natural killer cells, which temperature, is a systemic response to invading
“police” the body in blood and lymph, are a microorganisms; normally the body’s
unique group of lymphocytes that can lyse and “thermostat” is set at approximately 37 degrees
kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells Celsius, but it can be reset upward in response
well before the adaptive arm of the immune to pyrogens, chemicals secreted by white blood
system is enlisted to fight; they act cells and macrophages exposed to foreign cells
spontaneously against any such target by or substances in the body.
recognizing certain sugars on the “intruder’s” The Inflammatory Process
surface as well as their lack of certain “self” cell
surface molecules; they attack the target cell’s The inflammatory sequence of events are described below.
membrane and release a lytic chemical
called perforins.  Chemical alarm. When cells are injured, they
 Inflammatory response. The inflammatory release inflammatory chemicals,
response is a nonspecific response that is including histamine and kinins.
triggered whenever body tissues are injured; the  Body’s reaction. The release of histamine,
four most common indicators of an acute kinins, and other chemicals cause blood vessels
inflammation are redness, heat, swelling, in the involved area to dilate and capillaries to
and pain. become leaky, activate pain receptors, and
 Antimicrobial proteins. A variety of attract phagocytes and white blood cells to the
antimicrobial proteins enhances the innate area (chemotaxis).
defenses: (1) Complement is a group of plasma  Redness and heat. Dilatation of the blood
proteins that lyses microorganisms, enhances vessels increases the blood flow to the area,
phagocytosis by opsonization, and intensifies accounting for the redness and heat observed.
inflammatory response; (2) Interferons are  Edema and pain. Increased permeability of the
proteins released by virus-infected cells that capillaries allows plasma to leak from the blood
protect uninfected tissue cells from viral into the tissue spaces, causing local edema
takeover and mobilize immune system;
 (swelling) that also activates pain receptors in  Foreign intruders. An almost limitless variety
the area. of substances can act as antigens, including
 Limitation of joint movement. If the swollen, virtually all foreign proteins, nucleic acids, many
painful area is a joint, its function may be large carbohydrates, and some lipids; proteins
impaired temporarily, which forces the injured are the strongest antigens.
part to rest, which aids healing.  Self-antigens. Our own cells are richly studded
Adaptive Body Defenses with a variety of protein molecules or self-
antigens; although these self-antigens do not
Sometimes referred to as the body’s third line of defense, the trigger an immune response in us, they are
specific defense system is a functional system that recognizes strongly antigenic to other people.
foreign molecules (antigens) and acts to inactivate or destroy  Hapten. As a rule, small molecules are not
them. antigenic, but when they link up with our own
proteins, the immune system may recognize the
 Important aspects. There are three important combination as foreign and mount an attack
aspects of the adaptive defense: (1) It is that is harmful rather than protective; in such
antigen-specific, it recognizes and acts against cases, the troublesome small molecule is called
particular pathogens or foreign substances; (2) a hapten or incomplete antigen.
It is systemic, immunity is not restricted to the Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview
initial infection site; (3)It has “memory“, it
recognizes and mounts even stronger attacks The crucial cells of the adaptive system are lymphocytes and
on previously encountered pathogens. macrophages.
 Classifications. Humoral immunity, also called
antibody-mediated immunity, is provided by Lymphocytes
antibodies present in the body’s “humors”, or
fluids. while cellular immunity or cell-mediated Lymphocytes exist in two major “flavors”: the B lymphocytes, or
immunity involves lymphocytes that defend the B cells, and the T lymphocytes, or T cells.
body, as the protective factor is living cells.
Antigens  B lymphocytes. The B lymphocytes, or B cells,
produce antibodies and oversee humoral
An antigen (Ag) is any substance capable of mobilizing our immunity.
immune system and provoking an immune response.
 T lymphocytes. The T lymphocytes, or T cells,  Migration. After they become
are non-antibody-producing lymphocytes that immunocompetent, both T cells and B cells
constitute the cell-mediated arm of the migrate to the lymph nodes and spleen (and
adaptive defense system. loose connective tissues), where their
 Origin. Like all blood cells, lymphocytes encounters with antigens will occur.
originate from hemocytoblasts in red bone  Full maturation. Then, when the lymphocytes
marrow. bind with recognized antigens, they complete
 Immunocompetent. Whether a given their differentiation into fully mature T cells and
lymphocyte matures into a B cell or T cell B cells.
depends on where in the body it becomes Macrophages
immunocompetent, that is, capable of
responding to a specific antigen by binding to Macrophages, which also become largely distributed
it. throughout the lymphoid organs and connective tissues, arise
 Maturation of T cells. T cells arise from from monocytes, formed in the bone marrow.
lymphocytes that migrate to the thymus, where
they undergo a maturation process of 2 to 3  Major role. A major role of macrophages in the
days, directed by thymic hormones; only those innate defense system is to engulf foreign
maturing T cells with the sharpest ability to particles and rid them from the area; they also
identify foreign antigens survive. present fragments of those antigens, like signal
 Self-tolerance. Lymphocytes capable of flags, on their own surfaces, where they can be
binding strongly with self-antigens (and of recognized by immunocompetent T cells.
acting against body cells) are vigorously  Cytokines. Macrophages also secrete cytokines
weeded out and destroyed; thus, the proteins that are important in the immune
development of self-tolerance for the body’s response.
own cells is an essential part of a lymphocyte’s  Killer macrophages. Activated T cells, in turn,
“education”. release chemicals that causes macrophages to
 Maturation of B cell. B cells develop become insatiable phagocytes, or killer
immunocompetence in bone marrow, but less is macrophages.
known about the factors that regulate B cell  Location. Macrophages tend to remain fixed in
maturation. the lymphoid organs, but lymphocytes,
 especially T cells circulate continuously through response peak about 10 days after the response
the body. begins and then slowly decline.
Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response  Memory cells. B cell clone members that do
not become plasma cells become long-lived
An immunocompetent but as yet immature B lymphocyte is memory cells capable of responding to the
stimulated to complete its development, when antigens bind same antigen at later meetings with it; memory
to its surface receptors. cells are responsible for the immunological
memory, and these later immune responses,
 Clonal selection. An immunocompetent but as called secondary humoral responses, are
yet immature B lymphocyte is stimulated to produced much faster, are more prolonged, and
complete its development (into a fully mature B are more effective than the events of the
cell) when antigens bind to its surface receptors; primary response because all the preparations
this binding event sensitizes, or activates, the for this attack have already been made.
lymphocyte to “switch on”, and undergo clonal Active and Passive Humoral Immunity
selection.
 Primary humoral response. The resulting There are two kinds of humoral immunity: active and passive
family of identical cells descended from the humoral immunity.
same ancestor cell is called a clone, and clone
formation is the primary humoral response to  Active immunity. When your B cells encounter
that antigen. antigen and produce antibodies against them,
 Plasma cells. Most of the B cell clone members, you are exhibiting active immunity; active
or descendants, become plasma cells. immunity is (1) naturally acquired during
 Antibody production. After an initial lag bacterial and viral infections, and (2) artificially
period, these antibody-producing “factories” acquired when we receive vaccines.
swing into action, producing the same highly  Vaccines. We receive two benefits from
specific antibodies at an unbelievable rate of vaccines: (1) they spare us most of the signs and
about 2000 antibody molecules per second. symptoms of the disease that would otherwise
 Life span.  This flurry of activity lasts only 4 to 5 occur during the primary response and (2) the
days, then the plasma cells begin to die; weakened antigens are still able to stimulate
antibody levels in the blood during this primary antibody production and promote
immunological memory.
  Booster shots. So-called booster shots, which  Antibodies. Antibodies are soluble proteins
may intensify the immune response at later secreted by activated B cells or by their plasma-
meetings with the same antigen, are also cell offspring in response to an antigen and
available. they are capable of binding specifically with that
 Passive immunity. In passive immunity, the antigen.
antibodies are obtained from the serum of an  Basic antibody structure. Regardless of its
immune human or animal donor; as a result, the class, every antibody has a basic structure
B cells are not challenged by the antigen, consisting of four amino acid (polypeptide)
immunological memory does not occur, and the chains linked together by disulfide (sulfur-to-
temporary protection provided by the sulfur) bonds.
“borrowed antibodies” ends when they naturally  Heavy chains. Two of the four chains are
degrade in the body. identical and contain approximately 400 amino
 Natural passive immunity. Passive immunity is acids each.
conferred naturally on a fetus when the  Light chains. The two other chains, the light
mother’s antibodies cross the placenta and chains, are also identical to each other but are
enter fetal circulation, and after birth only about half as long as the heavy chains.
during breastfeeding.  Antibody classes. There are five major
 Artificial passive immunity. Passive immunity immunogloblin classes- IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, and
is artificially conferred when one receives IgE.
immune serum or gamma globulin.  IgD. IgD is virtually always attached to B cell
 Monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal and is believed to be the cell surface receptor of
antibodies prepared commercially for use in immunocompetent B cell; and it is also
research are produced by descendants of a important in activation of B cell.
single cell and are pure antibody preparations  IgM. IgM is attached to B cell and free in
that exhibit specificity for one, and only one, plasma; when it is bound to the B cell
antigen. membrane, it serves as an antigen receptor; first
Antibodies Ig class released to plasma by plasma cells
during primary response; it is also a potent
Antibodies, also referred to as immunoglobulins, or Igs, agglutinating agent and fixes complement.
constitute the gamma globulin part of blood proteins.  IgG. IgG is the most abundant antibody in
plasma, representing 75% to 85% of circulating
 antibodies; it is the main antibody of both  Agglutination. When the cross-linking involves
primary and secondary responses; crosses the cell-bound antigens, the process causes
placenta and provides passive immunity to clumping of the foreign cells, a process called
fetus; fixes complement. agglutination; this type of antigen-antibody
 IgA. Some are found in plasma; dimer in reaction occurs when mismatched blood is
secretions such as saliva, tears, intestinal juice, transfused and is the basis of tests used for
and milk; it bathes and protects mucosal blood typing.
surfaces from attachment of pathogens.  Precipitation. When the cross-linking involves
 IgE. It is secreted by plasma cells in skin, soluble antigenic molecules, the resulting
mucosae of gastrointestinal and respiratory antigen-antibody complexes are so large that
tracts, and tonsils; it binds to mast cells and they become insoluble and settle out of
basophils and triggers release of histamine and solution;  this cross-linking reaction is more
other chemicals that mediate inflammation and precisely called precipitation.
certain allergic responses. Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response
 Antibody function. Antibodies inactivate
antigens in a number of ways- by complement Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activated to form a
fixation, neutralization, agglutination, and clone by binding with a “recognized” antigen; however, T cells
precipitation. are not able to bind with free antigens.
 Complement fixation. Complement is the chief
antibody ammunition used against cellular  Antigen presentation. Apparently, T cell must
antigens, and it is fixed (activated) during innate recognize “nonself”, the antigen fragment
defenses; it is also activated very efficiently  presented by the macrophage, and also “self”
when it binds to antibodies attached to cellular by coupling with a specific glycoprotein on the
targets. macrophage’s surface at the same time; antigen
 Neutralization. Neutralization occurs when binding alone is not enough to sensitize T cells;
antibodies bind to specific sites on they must be “spoon-fed” the antigens by
bacterial exotoxins (toxic chemicals secreted by macrophages, and something like a “double
bacteria) or on viruses that can cause handshake” must occur; this is called antigen
cellular injury; in this way they block the harmful presentation and is essential for activation and
effects of the exotoxin or virus. clonal selection of the T cells.
 Cytotoxic (killer) T cells.  Some T cells are each clone are long-lived memory cells that
cytotoxic ,or killer, T cells that specialize in remain behind to provide immunological
killing virus-infected, cancer, or foreign graft memory for each antigen encountered and
cells; one way a cytotoxic T cell accomplishes enable the body to respond quickly to
this is by binding tightly to a foreign cell and subsequent invasions.
releasing toxic chemicals Lymphocyte Differentiation and Activation
called perforins and granzymes from its
granules. The process of differentiation and activation of lymphocytes
 Helper T cells. Helper T cells are the T cells that include the following:
act as the “directors” or “managers” of the
immune system; once activated, they circulate  Immunocompetence. Lymphocytes destined to
through the body, recruiting other cells to fight become T cells migrate from bone marrow to
the invaders; the helper T cells also release a the thymus and develop immunocompetence
variety of cytokine chemicals that act indirectly there; B cells develop immunocompetence in
to rid the body of antigens by (1) stimulating the bone marrow.
cytotoxic T cells and B cells to grow and divide;  Activation. After leaving the thymus or bone
(2) attracting other types of protective white marrow as naive immunocompetent cells,
blood cells, such as neutrophils, into the area; lymphocytes “seed” the infected connective
and (3) enhancing the ability of macrophages to tissues, where the antigen challenge occurs and
engulf and destroy microorganisms. the lymphocytes become fully activated.
 Regulatory T cells. Another t cell population,  Circulation. Activated (mature) lymphocytes
the regulatory T cells, formerly called circulate continuously in the bloodstream and
suppressor T cells, releases chemicals that lymph, and throughout the lymphoid organs of
suppress the activity of both T and B cells; the body.
regulatory T cells are vital for winding down and
finally stopping the immune response after an
antigen has been successfully inactivated or
destroyed.
 Memory cells. Most of the T cells enlisted to
fight in a particular immune response are dead
within a few days; however, a few members of