South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 4, November 2014 1

Art. # 1034, 8 pages, http://www.sajournalofeducation.co.za

Teachers’ social capital as a resource for curriculum development: lessons learnt in the
implementation of a Child-Friendly Schools programme

Mpho Modipane & Mahlapahlapana Themane

Department of Education Studies, University of Limpopo, South Africa
[email protected]

This paper reports on lessons learnt in the use of teachers’ social capital as a resource for curriculum development, in the
implementation of the Child-Friendly Schools (CFS) programme in South Africa. The researchers in this study were
amongst the trainers. The study followed a qualitative research approach, where a descriptive research design was adopted.
Twenty teachers (two groups, of ten each) were recruited to form part of the study through a purposive sampling strategy.
Data was collected through two methods: interviews and observations. The data collected was explicated using Hycner’s
(1999) model of data analysis. Data transcripts were re-read until categories and themes emerged. The study found that
teachers were enthusiastic about implementing the programme as they participated actively in it through the implementation
of CFS principles in their Life Orientation (LO) classrooms. The findings of this study have at least two implications for
policy makers and researchers. The first is that the one-day workshops that teachers attend over a weekend appear to be in-
adequate, and could be used to complement more structured interventions such as that described in this article. The second is
that teachers’ social capital is critical in the implementation of curriculum development processes for an intervention to be
effective.

Key words: child-friendly schools; curriculum implementation; curriculum improvement; teachers

Introduction
The need for curriculum improvement, where all the aspects within the school are included (Carl, 2009), is
embedded in many quality assurance mechanisms, and on-going professional development efforts (Boud &
Hager, 2012). On-going curriculum improvement is important for improving the academic achievement of
learners, and for the holistic development of learners. It also serves to develop the competences of teachers. The
need to improve both the academic achievement of learners and the competences of teachers is normally evident
in interventions that are meant to bring about curriculum change.
Curriculum change and development in most of these interventions would take the form of short
workshops, one-day training sessions, or community meetings. This approach appears to be limited in its
effectiveness, because it lacks depth and continuity. Du Preez and Roux (2008) argue that such an approach
excludes the participation of teachers, who are central in the implementation of any curriculum improvement
effort. They argue, as do we, that such an approach affects teacher commitment in the delivery of curriculum
improvement efforts. Teacher participation in the implementation of any curriculum development is useful when
gauging the success of such a curriculum, especially when they contribute their social capital towards it
(Varkey, Peloquin, Reed, Lindor & Harris, 2009).
The present study sought to explain this idea of teachers sharing social capital through the description of
teachers’ participation in an intervention curriculum programme that infused the CFS principles and approaches
in an Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) in LO teacher education programme. Our position is informed
by a view of curriculum as a process, rather than as mere product.
There are two contrasting conceptions of curriculum. One conceives of curriculum as a product that is
complete and ready for use (Coleman, Graham-Jolly & Middlewood, 2003; Stenhouse, 1976; Varkey et al.,
2009), where teachers are recipients and implementers of the curriculum, rather than its developers (Stenhouse,
1976). Another view sees curriculum as a process that takes place in classrooms, where teachers take an active
role in its design and implementation. In this view, the curriculum refers to more than just the writing of lesson
plans, but entails an ongoing process that teachers begin during extended training, and continue with as they
work in their own schools and classrooms. The two views of curriculum referred to may be traced back to a
debate between the respective authors Tyler and Stenhouse, where Tyler argued that the curriculum was a
product, while Stenhouse described it as a process (Hoadley & Jansen, 2012).
This study follows the latter conception, where we sought to discover the role of teachers in the creation of
safe and supportive school environments, through the implementation of CFS principles. Studies have shown
that when teachers provide social capital in teaching and learning environments, this results in the cascading of
the curriculum (Baker-Doyle & Yoon, 2011; Croninger & Lee, 2001).

The Social Capital of Teachers

The notion of social capital evolved from the work of sociologists like Pierre Bourdieu, who explained it as the
average of the actual or potential resources, which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less
institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition (Bourdieu, 1983). Central to the notion of
2 Modipane, Themane

social capital is the idea of contributions by indi- often carry headlines such as: “Children learning
viduals within a social structure (Coleman, 1988). under trees” (Macupe, 2012:2). These reports are,
Thus, social capital does not simply refer to a sin- to a great extent, evidence that many learners are
gle entity, but to a variety of entities, which have still exposed to different forms of violence, abuse,
common elements, and facilitate certain actions negligence and danger. As a result, several inter-
collectively within that social structure. Such a ventions are currently being implemented, includ-
form of social interaction enables citizens to ad- ing the CFS.
dress societal problems more meaningfully. As an intervention, the CFS is a response to
Our paper focuses on the contributions made the call by UNICEF and Common Wealth of
by teachers, collectively in their teaching and Learning (COL) to promote child-friendly school-
learning environments. The teachers in the study ing. The Department of Educational Studies at the
implemented the CFS principles they learnt from University of Limpopo, South Africa, developed a
the ACE in LO programme in their own school programme to promote CFS principles through an
settings; working with other teachers. Thus, they intensive curriculum development process. In re-
drew from their institutionalised relationships of viewing its ACE in LO programme for in-service
mutual acquaintance and recognition in imple- teachers, the Department decided to weave the CFS
menting the curriculum. principles, as a binding thread, throughout the
Consistent with our stance, Cohen and Hill modules that constitute the programme for effec-
(2001), as well as Penuel, Sun, Frank and tiveness and re-enforcement. Teachers registered in
Gallagher (2012), have also considered the notion the programme were immersed in a curriculum
of social capital on content-focused professional combining the CFS principles, which ran for two
development, and the improvement of teachers’ years. This was intended to gain their involvement
practice. In this way, social capital aids the imple- and to strengthen their capacity for implementation.
mentation of reform initiatives (Gamoran, Gunter This decision was taken to ensure that all the
& William, 2005). For the notion of social capital teachers registered in the programme became aware
of teachers to succeed, there is a need for relational of the magnitude of the problem of the violation of
trust among the individuals within the school the rights of children, and to begin to think mean-
structure. ingfully about the role they might fulfil. It further
prompted the teachers to reflect on their own prac-
Relational Trust in Schools tice, with a view to moving towards more child-
The concept of relational trust within the school friendly practices, and to becoming agents of CFS
context emanates from sociological frameworks in their own schools and environments.
that explain schools as organisational structures Masitsa (2001) also argues that teachers as
where interactions take place among groups such as curriculum implementers are best positioned to
teachers and their learners; teachers and parents; change schools for the better. So, creating an
and teachers and their peers (Bryk & Schneider, awareness of the need for safe and child-friendly
2002). Relational trust among individuals has a school environments amongst teachers, and in-
bearing on trust in the organisational structure. For volving them in the creation of such environments,
teachers in the ACE in LO programme to succeed is likely to yield more effective change and devel-
in the implementation of CFS principles, this kind opment (Carl, 2009; Wang & Cheng, 2005). We
of trust with other individuals such as school lead- argue, therefore, that the structured ACE in LO
ers, fellow teachers, learners and the school gov- programme was a more effective approach for cur-
erning bodies – all of whom effectively represent riculum development, and that the teachers’ par-
the parent in their schools – was critical. ticipation served as a valuable source for curricu-
lum review. It is against this background that this
Context of the Study study sought to establish a way in which teachers’
South Africa, like many other developing countries social capital as a resource in the curriculum devel-
such as Thailand, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Sudan (United opment, contributes towards curriculum improve-
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2009b), and ment.
some developed countries like the United States Of
America (US) (Hall, 2013), experiences challenges The Child-Friendly School Conceptual Framework
related to the violation of children’s rights in The CFS conceptual framework was developed by
schools. While many children are able to access UNICEF. It is a response to a lack of progress in
learning environments that are conducive to learn- achieving the goals of these initiatives. At its heart,
ing, there are still many learners who are exposed CFS approaches are aimed at making schools work
to conditions that are not child-friendly at all better for the welfare of children. They seek to cre-
(UNICEF, 2009a). This constitutes a violation of ate educational environments that are safe, healthy
children’s right to education. Such violation is and which protect children, and which facilitate the
broadly reported almost daily in the mass media. delivery of quality education. Furthermore, CFS
Newspaper articles and news reports on television seeks to foster an environment where children’s
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 4, November 2014 3

rights are protected and advanced, and their voices principles in courses. The ACE in LO programme
given adequate space. For that purpose, CFS ap- was then restructured so as to integrate the CFS
proaches promote inclusiveness, gender-sensitivity, principles of inclusivity, learner-centredness and
tolerance, dignity and personal empowerment democratic participation (UNICEF, 2009a).
(Irvine, 2000). The CFS characteristics derived from these
In South Africa, the Department of National principles are that school ought to be: rights-based;
Education has worked closely with UNICEF to health-promoting and health-seeking; safe and se-
develop strategies that aimed to make schools bet- cured, providing effective teaching; gender-sensi-
ter. UNICEF has been supporting the Safe and tive; and promoting partnerships with their com-
Caring Child Friendly Schools (SCCFS) for several munities. The ACE in LO programme, amongst
years now, and by 2010, 820 of the most disad- other issues, required the teachers to know the CFS
vantaged schools were implementing it. A 2011 principles and to understand them, so as to imple-
evaluation study by Irvine (2000) noted that child- ment them through the teaching of LO, and to re-
friendly principles have now become fully inte- late the outcomes of LO to the CFS principles.
grated into the national Caring and Support for However, they did not participate in all the phases
Teaching and Learning framework, which will help of developing the programme, but only in the im-
to ensure the sustainability and scaling up of the plementation phase. It is within this context that the
SCCFS concept nationwide. Plans are underway teachers were recruited to participate in the present
for full scale-up in three provinces, with the lowest study. The research question that we sought to an-
performance rates in the 2011 Annual National swer was: how does the resource of teachers’ social
Assessment. The CFS principles are thus the core capital enhance the implementation of curriculum?
strategy for improvement through the Education
Sector Action Plan 2014 (Department of Basic Research Methodology
Education, 2011) and the Schooling 2025 initiative Research Design
(Department of Basic Education, 2010). In order to best understand how teachers’ active
This Action Plan, along with Schooling 2025, participation and social capital enhance curriculum
aim to make certain that every learner receives implementation, we followed both an epistemo-
quality schooling. To achieve this goal, schools logical and the empirical inquiry. The former
should ensure amongst other things, that learners guided us to deepen our understanding of where
attend school regularly and that teachers teach ef- curriculum development and implementation stem
fectively. This goal is an admission that although from, and the latter helped us to ascertain how
substantial progress has been made towards im- teachers themselves began to see themselves as
proving the conditions in schools, much work still agents of changes as they grappled with the infu-
remains to be done. Most township and rural sion of the CFS principles and characteristics in
schools still face numerous challenges that make their schools.
them unsafe and unfriendly for children. The main To capture the teachers’ voice in the imple-
challenge is to turn CFS into a process of teacher mentation of the programme, a qualitative descrip-
education, rather than just a product. It is within tive research design was adopted for use in the
this framework that the ACE in LO programme study. Further, the design allowed us to explore the
was designed to address some of these challenges. teachers’ participation in the implementation of the
CFS principles and approaches from their own in-
The Advanced Certificate in Education (Life sider perspective. To address our qualitative and
Orientation) exploratory purposes, we made use of this inter-
The ACE in LO is an intervention programme that pretative paradigm at the levels of ontology (multi-
was designed to address the need of LO teachers, ple curriculum realities), epistemology (interaction
most of whom were not trained for the subject with rather than detachment from respondents) and
during their initial training as teachers. It was de- methodology (using idiographic methodology and
signed alongside the guidelines of Norms and instruments).
Standards for Teachers (Department of Education,
2000). In 2009, the Mpumalanga Provincial Data Collection
Department of Education requested that their LO In line with the qualitative methodology, we used
teachers be enrolled for the programme. Around qualitative data collection methods, general inter-
that time, UNICEF, in collaboration with COL, views (pre/post-lesson interviews, group inter-
approached the School of Education through the views) and participant observation; observing the
Department of Education Studies at the University teachers’ participation in curriculum development.
of Limpopo to roll out the CFS programme. The In addition, we also held informal conversations
ACE in LO programme was found to be best suited with school principals during our site visits. We
to carry out the project by infusing the CFS observed 20 schools: seven foundation phase
4 Modipane, Themane

schools, eight intermediate schools, and five senior then summarised each individual interview, vali-
phase schools; which were mainly rural, with a few dated with the respondents, and modified where
being semi-urban. necessary. Fifth, we then extracted what we re-
The descriptive design guided us through the garded as general meanings from all the three ma-
process of data construction, where focus-group jor themes, and developed a composite summary as
interviews were conducted with two groups of ten presented in the section below.
participants each. The teachers were sampled
through a purposive sampling strategy (on the basis Findings
that they taught LO, and were registered in the Findings from Interviews and Informal
ACELO programme). We included both male and Conversations
female participants. We also selected them ac- The findings from interviews with teachers are di-
cording the phases in which they were teaching. vided into three main domains: the teachers’
Seven were from the foundation phase (Grades One knowledge of the CFS principles; their interpreta-
to Three), eight were from the intermediate phase tions of the CFS principles; and their application of
(Grades Four to Six), and five from the senior the CFS principles.
phase (Grades Seven to Nine). The five teachers
from the senior phase were split into the other two Teachers’ knowledge of the CFS principles
phases (three into the foundation phase, and two On the whole, all the teachers were agreeable,
into the intermediate phase), to make the two forthcoming and eager to share their understanding
groups of ten. The participants in the first group of CFS in their responses, and displayed a good
were labelled A to J, and the participants in the knowledge of the CFS principles. They demon-
second group were labelled AA to JJ. strated a clear understanding of how they work.
In addition to the focus group interviews, in- They could identify the six principles clearly, and
dividual in-depth interviews (pre/post-lesson inter- could explain what each one of them meant. They
views) were constructed around the six CFS char- were also able to explain the principles in terms of
acteristics that emanate from the three principles: how they related to each other. For example, they
learner-centredness; democratic participation; and were able to see the relationship between the prin-
inclusiveness as themes. The teachers were asked ciple of learner-centredness as a base for inclusivity
to reflect on their experiences of how they inte- and democratic participation. This is illustrated in
grated these in their teaching. Interview data was teacher DD’s explanation of her interaction with
corroborated through participant observations on her learners, reporting that: “I make sure my class-
the school sites. This included the inspection of room is learner-centred by including all learners
classrooms, toilets and the school ground. and by allowing each one of them to participate”.
Documents were also analysed. These included the The teachers clearly differentiated the meanings of
departmental education policies; school policies; the principles while seeing their relationship.
CFS training manuals and teachers’ reflective jour-
Teachers’ interpretation of the CFS principles
nals. These documents allowed us to frame our
The teachers’ understanding of the CFS principles
analysis of data. In addition, the study of these
was further reflected in their interpretation and
documents allowed us to use CFS principles as a
context within their schools. They also tended to
guide to practice, while the inductive approach
place emphasis on particular principles in some
allowed us to use classroom practice to inform the
instances. For example, Teacher J repeatedly re-
CFS principles.
ferred to the importance of democratic participation
This use of multiple methods enabled us to
in the classroom, while teacher BB stressed the
enter the world of teachers to ascertain whether
inclusivity of learners. This is evidenced where she
they were moving towards praxis in their imple-
noted: “I now go out of my way to encourage each
mentation of CFS principles. (Huberman, 1993;
learner to take part in the lesson”.
Zeichner, 1995).
Further, they did not isolate what the princi-
ples meant from their school and classroom reali-
Data Explication
We followed Hycner’s model (Groenewald, 2004) ties. Teacher B had this to say:
Since I […] participated in this programme; I […]
of data explication as follows: firstly, data from the initiated some changes in our school. For exam-
different sources were classified according to the ple, we now consider the opinions of learners
six characteristics of CFS, which formed themes when it comes to making choices that affect them.
around which we organised data. Secondly, we We allow them to choose the colours of their
delineated units of meaning, by reading the tran- sports gear [for example].
scripts over and over again by both researchers,
which were then given to a peer so as to establish Teachers’ application and practice of the CFS
trustworthiness (Bitsch, 2005; Lincoln, 1995). principles
Thirdly, we then clustered these meanings Regarding the application or implementation of the
according to the three CFS principles. Fourthly, we CFS principles, it was revealed that the teachers
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 4, November 2014 5

saw themselves as agents of change in their their support and that of the entire staff. The teach-
schools. In some cases, they initiated the cascading ers in the Advanced Certificate in Education Life
of the CFS principles and characteristics by sharing Orientation (ACELO) programme had brought
ideas and skills through meetings with the rest of about invisible and visible change in the schools
the teachers, depending on the support they got and classrooms in the form of: advocating for the
from the school leadership. Some of them said that involvement of learners in some decision making
they were seen as knowledgeable resource people processes; promoting inclusiveness in dealing with
by their colleagues, who consulted with them when learners in the school and in the classrooms; pro-
they encountered certain challenges or problems in moting maximum and free participation of learners
the school environment. “They now call us experts in school activities and projects; requesting that the
of LO and CFS in the school”, said teacher EE. South African flag be hoisted in the school yard;
They alluded to the fact that their attitude towards the mission and vision statement of the school be
learners and towards dealing with problems had displayed at the school entrance; safety and secu-
changed. In some cases, this was corroborated by rity at the school gate; a school garden, which in
the principals when we visited the schools. some cases involved community members; well-
Some of the teachers had initiated activities cooked clean food, where a project that had already
even beyond the school in order to assist learners. been in place and was run by the provincial de-
An outstanding example was one in which the partments of education, which also often involved
teacher in the programme had worked with other parents and other members of the community;
teachers and organised the building of a two- clean running water; clean toilets; promoting
roomed house for children in their school, who cleanliness in the whole school environment; ramps
lived under rather difficult conditions. In some to accommodate disabled learners and steps built
cases, the teachers went out of their way to find out around steep school surfaces for the safety of the
why learners arrived late at school and why some learners.
of them were not regular in their attendance. The Some of the teachers demonstrated acute
teachers also indicated that in many cases, they leadership skills and showed enthusiasm in intro-
found ways of assisting some of their learners to ducing and implementing some of the practices
access their social grants and to obtain school uni- related to CFS. Such teachers were regarded as
forms. Teacher BB indicated that, “the principal effective teachers by their peers and school princi-
and teachers now alerted each other of learners pals even before registering for the ACELO pro-
who seem to come to school in a bad shape [sic], gramme.
and [to] trace whether they come from poor back- The school leaders however indicated that a
grounds.” They also tried to assist learners who few of the teachers in the ACELO programme had
were abused in one way or the other by involving not initiated much change and were not active in
those around them and those who could assist leading the processes that lead to the effective im-
them, such as the social workers. plementation of the CFS principles and practices.
Regarding their practice in the classroom, the
teachers indicated that they were conscious of the Findings from Observations
importance of treating all learners alike, irrespec- We classified observations made at these schools
tive of their performance in class or their socio- into three areas, those related to the physical envi-
economic background. Some explained how they ronment (security personnel at the entrance and a
had arranged for ramps to be built in their schools fence around the school), classroom environments,
to assist the disabled learners with their mobility. and teaching and learning processes (those that
The teachers also reported that they tried by all related to teaching and learning (involvement of
means to involve learners in taking decisions on learners as well as those that related to the teaching
certain issues, like developing classroom rules. and learning process itself regarding the content
Even in their teaching, they said they tried by all that was taught and how it taught.
means to give every learner a chance to participate
freely. According to the teachers, the principle of Physical environments
learner-centeredness was key, and the other two The observations made at the school sites revealed
principles of democratic participation and inclusiv- that in most of the schools, there was security at the
ity served to actualise it. They argued that a gate in the form of high steel gates, as well as a
learner-centred classroom would be inclusive and security guard who controlled access to the school.
would allow learners free participation in class- There was a mission and vision statement displayed
room activities. at the entrance; some schools had ramps con-
It was possible to ascertain from the informal structed, but others did not have them. Some of the
conversations with the school principals and heads schools were made attractive from the outside, with
of departments that teachers had approached them trees and plants grown at the entrance or around the
and explained the requirements and expectations of whole school or in some key areas of the school. In
the programme. The teachers had also asked for many of the schools we visited, the toilets were
6 Modipane, Themane

clean and there was water, but in a few cases, the child to the clinic to address a health problem: “I
toilets were still not clean. sent a letter to the parents asking them to take the
Some schools had running water, while others child to the clinic, but they did not”, said Teacher
bought water or requested the learners to bring A.
water from home. Water was still a problem in
some cases, and this affected most of the gardening Discussion
in these schools. In many of the schools, attempts This study sought to establish the way in which
to plant trees and flowers and to keep the schools teachers’ social capital contributed in the imple-
clean were evident. All the learners in all the mentation of CFS. The study used a qualitative
schools visited were wearing a school uniform. research methodology to investigate this notion.
There was transport for all the learners who Overall, we found that teachers’ participation in the
attended farm schools in the form of buses, but this implementation of the CFS improved their com-
was not the case with learners in the villages and mitment to curriculum development.
townships. The feeding scheme was running well in We therefore argue, following Du Preez and
all the schools. Roux (2008), that when teachers are active
participants in the implementation, and when the
Classroom environments new intervention is integrated in their everyday
We also observed that there was a cordial atmos- teaching, this improves its success. In contrast,
phere between teachers and learners, and among when curriculum development efforts take place in
the learners themselves. For example, in some in- the form of one-day workshops, and other forms
stances learners knew one another’s names, which that are short-term, they tend to leave teachers out,
is a rare occurrences in cases where there is over- and are inadequate.
crowding. Learners were encouraged to share an- Our findings are consistent with other studies
swers among themselves, which promoted coop- elsewhere. Martin-Kniep and Uhrmacher (1992), in
erative learning. Other positive features that pro- an article entitled Teachers as Curriculum
moted good learning in these environments in- Developers, make use of an analogy of a musical
cluded the accessibility of ground rules, which composer and musical conductor. They compare
were hung on the classrooms walls (Reutzel & curriculum experts, who develop curriculum
Clarke, 2011), alongside the South African flag and materials from a district office, to music
other educational charts (Barber & Badre,1998). In composers, and musical conductors to teachers.
our view, these features contributed towards the They argue that when the music composers are also
promotion of CFS principles. the conductors, they find their work more fulfilling.
Such is the case when teachers are active
Teaching and learning process participants in the writing of learning materials
The content taught to the learners in the different adapted to their own settings. In another study by
phases was at the required level in terms of the pre- Shawer (2010), which aimed to explore teacher
scribed National Curriculum Statement. Many of curriculum approaches and the strategies attached
the lessons we observed involved the learner most to them, it was found that when teachers were ac-
of the time. Teacher-centeredness was clearly tive participants in curriculum development, this
minimal. increased the implementation of new initiatives.
This view is also embraced by several other cur-
Challenges that teachers experienced in the riculum scholars (Collopy, 2003; Kavanagh, Agan
implementation of CFS principles & Sneider, 2005; Kavanagh & Sneider, 2007).
Despite these positive experiences, teachers also However, contrary to our findings, some
cited some challenges they came across in their bid studies (Miller-Day, Pettigrew, Hechet, Shin,
to introduce and implement the CFS principles in Graham & Krieger, 2013; Stein, Kaufman & Kisa,
their school environments. Teacher G expressed: “I 2014) point to constraints (time, institutional, per-
sacrifice and try my best but no one helps, espe- sonal, and technical), and respond to student needs
cially the school leaders.” In some cases, they re- (students’ abilities to process curriculum content to
ported that some of their colleagues were not sup- enhance student engagement with material) as ma-
portive of their initiatives and this affected the jor obstacles to teachers engaging in matters of
quality of implementation. Some parents, according curriculum development. Also, related to this view,
to the teachers, also posed a challenge, because was that teachers were more likely to resort to dis-
they did not engage with teachers or come to the trict-based materials as their source of a lesson plan
school when invited. Some did not offer support to than to develop their own, based on unique con-
their children even when advised to do so by the texts (Stein et al., 2014; Wang & Cheng, 2005).
school. Another major challenge for the teacher Fogleman, McNeill and Krajcik (2011) found that
was finding it difficult to get the parents to obtain teachers experienced challenges in adapting an
social grants for their children, or failing to take the innovative curriculum, specifically around issues of
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 4, November 2014 7

the amount of time, level of completion, activity South Africa, for allowing us access to their
tructures, and teacher self-efficacy (teacher comfort schools for the research project.
and student understanding).
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