Telecommunication Networks

15B11EC611

Dr. Bhagirath Sahu

Assistant Professor, JIIT, Noida
 Data Link Layer

 This PPT is containing the discussion of Error Detection and Correction

and Framing of Data Link Layer.

 Kindly refer page numbers: 267 to 271, 284 to 293, and 307 to 310 of the
Book_1_Data-Communications-and-Networking - By Forouzan for
detailed discussion.
 Kindly note: For topics, follow this PPT, and for detailed discussion of
those topics, follow the book.
Data Link Layer
Specific responsibilities of the data link layer include framing, addressing, flow
control, error control, and media access control.

Error Detection and Correction

• Data can be corrupted during transmission

Types of Errors
1. Single-Bit Error
• only 1 bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1

2. Burst Error

• 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed.

Error Detection and Correction

Redundancy
• The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy.

 To detect or correct errors, we need to send extra (redundant) bits

with data.

Coding
• Redundancy is achieved through various coding schemes.

• We can divide coding schemes into two broad categories:

1. block coding and
2. convolution coding.
Error Detection and Correction

Modular Arithmetic
• In modular arithmetic, we use only a limited range of integers.

modulo-N arithmetic
• use only the integers 0 to N - I, inclusive
• Addition and subtraction in modulo arithmetic are simple.
• There is no carry when you add two digits in a column.
• There is no carry when you subtract one digit from another in a column.

Adding: 0+0=0 0+1=1 1+0=1 1+1=0

Subtracting: 0-0=0 0-1=1 1-0=1 1-1=0

• In this arithmetic we use the XOR (exclusive OR) operation for both
addition and subtraction.
BLOCK CODING
 In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits, called
datawords.
 We add r redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r.
 The resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.

 Dataword size = k
 Codeword size = n

 A coding scheme C is written as C (n, k)

LINEAR BLOCK CODES

• a linear block code is a code in which the exclusive OR (addition
modulo-2) of two valid codewords creates another valid codeword.
CYCLIC CODES
• Cyclic codes are special linear block codes
• In a cyclic code, if a codeword is cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is
another codeword.

• For example, if 1011000 is a codeword and we cyclically left-shift, then

0110001 is also a codeword.

Cyclic Redundancy Check

• This is a category of cyclic codes called the cyclic redundancy check (CRC)

 Dataword size = k bits

 Codeword size = n bits
 The size of the dataword is augmented by adding n - k 0s to the right-hand
side of the word.
 Divisor size = n – k + 1
Cyclic Redundancy Check
• The generator divides the augmented dataword by the divisor (modulo-2
division).
• The quotient of the division is discarded; the remainder (r2r1r0) is appended to
the dataword to create the codeword.
• There is one important point we need to remember in this type of division. If the
leftmost bit of the dividend is 0, we need to use an all-0s divisor.
• When there are no bits left to pull down, we have a result. The 3-bit remainder
forms the check bits (r2, r1, and r0). They are appended to the dataword to
create the codeword.
Encoder
Decoder
• The codeword can change during transmission.
Polynomials
• A pattern of Os and 1s can be represented as a polynomial with coefficients of
0 and 1.
• The power of each term shows the position of the bit

• Figure shows one immediate benefit; a 7-bit pattern can be replaced by three
terms
Degree of a Polynomial
• The degree of a polynomial is the highest power in the polynomial.
• For example, the degree of the polynomial x6 + x + 1 is 6.
• Note that the degree of a polynomial is 1 less that the number of bits in the
pattern. The bit pattern in this case has 7 bits.

Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

• addition and subtraction are the same
• adding or subtracting is done by combining terms and deleting pairs of
identical terms.
• For example, adding x5 + x4 + x2 and x6 + x4 + x2 gives just x6 + x5.
• The terms x4 and x2 are deleted.
 note that if we add three polynomials and we get x2 three times, we delete a pair
of them and keep the third.
Multiplying or Dividing Terms

Multiplying Two Polynomials

• Each term of the first polynomial must be multiplied by all terms of the second.
• The pairs of equal terms are deleted.
• The following is an example:
Shifting
• A binary pattern is often shifted a number of bits to the right or left.
• Shifting to the left means adding extra 0s as rightmost bits;
• shifting to the right means deleting some rightmost bits.
• Shifting to the left is accomplished by multiplying each term of the polynomial by
xm where m is the number of shifted bits;
• shifting to the right is accomplished by dividing each term of the polynomial by
xm.

Shifting left 3 bits: 10011 becomes 10011000 x4 + x + 1 becomes x7 + x4 + x3

Shifting right 3 bits: 10011 becomes 10 x4 + x + 1 becomes x

CRC division using polynomials
• The process is shorter
• The dataword 1001 is represented as x3 + 1.
• The divisor 1011 is represented as x3 + x + 1.
• To find the augmented dataword, we have left-shifted the dataword 3 bits
(multiplying by x3). The result is x6 + x3

Note: we continue
to divide until
the degree of the
remainder is less
than the degree of
the divisor.
Data Link Layer
 In broad sense, the functions of the data link layer are:
1. data link control, and
2. media access control.

 Data link control functions include framing, flow and error control, and software
implemented protocols, that provide smooth and reliable transmission of frames
between nodes.

FRAMING
• Framing in the data link layer separates a message from one source to a
destination, or from other messages to other destinations, by adding a
sender address and a destination address.
• Destination address defines where the packet is to go.
• Sender address helps the recipient acknowledge the receipt.
FRAMING

 Frames can be of fixed or variable size.

 Fixed-Size Framing: no need for defining the boundaries of the frames
 Variable-Size Framing: need to define the end of the frame and the beginning
of the next.
o Two approaches were used for this purpose:
1. Character-oriented approach
2. Bit-oriented approach.
FRAMING

 Character-Oriented Protocols

 Data to be carried are 8-bit characters

 The header (carries the source and destination addresses and other control
information) and the trailer (carries error detection or error correction
redundant bits) are also multiples of 8 bits.
 To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte) flag (0111 1110) is
added at the beginning and the end of a frame.

Figure shows the format of a frame in a character-oriented protocol

Note: Flag could be selected to be any character

FRAMING

 Character-Oriented Protocols

 Flag could be selected to be any character and any pattern used for the
flag could also be part of the information.
 If this happens, the receiver, when it encounters this pattern in the middle
of the data, thinks it has reached the end of the frame.
 To fix this problem, a byte-stuffing strategy was added to character-
oriented framing

Byte stuffing (or Character stuffing)

 Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1 extra byte whenever there is a flag or
escape character in the text.
 A special byte called the escape character (ESC) is added to the data section
of the frame when there is a character with the same pattern as the flag.
 Whenever the receiver encounters the ESC character, it removes it from the
data section and treats the next character as data
Byte stuffing and unstuffing
 The escape characters that are part of the text must also be marked by another
escape character.
Bit-Oriented Protocols

A frame in a bit-oriented protocol

 This flag can create the same type of problem we saw in the byte-oriented
protocols.

 That is, if the flag pattern appears in the data, we need to somehow inform the
receiver that this is not the end of the frame.

 We do this by stuffing 1 single bit to prevent the pattern from looking like a flag.
The strategy is called bit stuffing.
Bit Stuffing
 Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s follow
a 0 in the data, so that the receiver does not mistake the pattern 0111110 for a flag.
Example: The following character encoding is used in a data link protocol:
A: 01000111: B: 11100011: FLAG: 01111110: ESC: 11100000
Show the bit sequence transmitted (in binary) after bit stuffing for the four-
character frame: A B FLAG ESC.

Example: A bit string, 0111101111101111110, needs to be transmitted at

the data link layer. What is the string actually transmitted after bit stuffing?
Example: The following character encoding is used in a data link protocol:
A: 01000111: B: 11100011: ESC: 11100000: FLAG: 01111110
Show the bit sequence transmitted (in binary) after bit stuffing for the four-
character frame: A B FLAG ESC.

Solution:

Dataword: 01000111111000110111111011100000

Codeword after bit stuffing: 0100011111010001101111101011100000

Transmitted bit sequence after bit stuffing:

01111110 0100011111010001101111101011100000 01111110

FLAG FLAG
Example: A bit string, 0111101111101111110, needs to be transmitted
at the data link layer. What is the string actually transmitted after bit stuffing?

Solution:

Transmitted bit sequence after bit stuffing

FLAG FLAG

01111110 011110 1111100 11111010 01111110