Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Module 6: Canal Irrigation

Classification of canals, Alignment of canals,
Design of rigid boundary canals, Lacey’s and
Tractive force concepts in canal design, lining
of canals; Sediment transport in canals, River
training

Canals
• Canals are open channels that transport water from a
source to distribution and delivery locations.
• Canals may be either lined or unlined depending on
earth and rock materials encountered.
• If the R.L of formation of canal bed is below the R.L
of ground cutting is done and vice versa.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Classification of Canals
1. Based on the nature of source of supply
1. Perennial canal/Permanent canal .
2. Non-perennial canal.
3. Inundation canal/rainy canal
2. Based on the function of the canal
1. Irrigation canal
2. Feeder canal
3. Carrier canal
4. Navigation canal
5. Power canal

A Permanent canal is a type of canal in which water is available

throughout the year. This type of canal is generally directed from a
permanent source of supply water bodies. Several Permanent hydraulic
structures are constructed in this type of canal for water regulation and
distribution. A Permanent canal can also be called as a perennial canal.
Inundation canal is a type of canal
in which water is available only
during the flood periods. These type
of canals are taken off from rivers to
control the water level in rivers
during floods.
A canal aligned along the boundaries of cultivatable areas in order to supply
water for the purpose of agriculture is said to be an irrigation canal.
As the name says, a feeder canal is constructed to feed two or more other
canals or branch canals.
A carrier canal is multi-function canal which serves the purposes of both
irrigation canal and feeder canal. It means the carrier canal feeds the other
canals as well as provides water for direct irrigation.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

A canal constructed especially for the generation of hydraulic power

is termed as power canal

A canal which is constructed especially for navigational purposes is

known as navigation canal. The water level required in a navigation
canal is generally a lot higher to accommodate large ships, vessels, etc.

Alignment of canals
Canals are aligned on contour, ridge and along side slope
and they are named as:
(i) Contour Canal
(ii) Ridge or Watershed Canal
(iii) Side Slope Canal

In aligning irrigation canal the following important points

are to be considered:
(i) It must cover the entire area proposed to be irrigated.
(ii) Smallest possible length of the canal for economy,
smaller head loss due to friction and smaller loss in seepage
and evaporation.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Contour Canal
Canal aligned nearly parallel to the contour is called Contour
Canal. In contour canal, culturable area lies on one side of it.
Thus, contour canal can irrigate on one side. As one of the bank
is on the higher side, so only a bank is required to construct on
the lower side. Therefore, it is sometimes called single bank
canal.

Ridge or Watershed Canal

• The canal is aligned along a natural watershed,
known as ridge. These canals usually take off from
the contour canal. It irrigates on both sides. C.D can
be avoided and hence it is more economical.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Side-Slope Canal
• This canal is aligned roughly perpendicular to contour of the
contour. Since it is perpendicular to the contour, construction
of Cross Drainage Works (CDWs) does not arise. Since
constructed along the falling contour, slope of this canal is
steep, which is not essential for unlined canal. It irrigates only
on one side just like contour canal.

Sediment Transport

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Sediment Transport

Sediment Transport

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Sediment Transport
Whenever water flows in a channel, it tries to scour its
surface. Silt or gravel or even larger boulders are detached
from the bed or sides of the channel. These detached
particles are swept downstream by the moving water. This
phenomenon is known as Sediment transport.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Importance of Sediment Transport

1. Causes large scale scouring and siltation in irrigation canal
2. Affects the flood control scheme:
Bed level changes
Create sharp and irregular curves
3. Silting of reservoirs
4. Affects the foundation of irrigation structure
5. Affects the foundation of bridges
6. Lowering of river and canal

Globally 60% of all bridge failures result from scour

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Forms of Sediment Transport in channel

Bed Load – Material that moves
along the bottom of the channel
(by rollating, saltation and rolling)
as a result of shear stress created by
vertical velocity gradients in the
streamflow.

Suspended Bed Material Load

bed material that becomes
suspended by action of turbulence.

Wash Load – fine material that

is carried by the flow in
suspension, but is not represented
in the bed material.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Forms of Sediment Transport in channel

Yellow river: China

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Bed-load transport

Once the forces acting

on particles are strong
enough to intiate motion…

Figure from Chanson, p. 200

… particles slide, roll,

and saltate down the river
bed at a steady rate.
Figure from Chanson, p. 180

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Regime channel
- Channel with no silting and scouring
- Not easily possible
Design of channel
The basis for designing such an ideal, non-silting, non-
scoring channel is that, whatever silt has entered the
channel at its head is kept in suspension, so that it does
not settle down and deposit at any point of channel.
Moreover the velocity of the water should be such that it
does not produce local silt by erosion of channel bed and
slopes.

Design of Stable channels in India

•Aveg. Shear stress (τ0) less than Critical shear stress (τc)
•Design by Chezy’s and Mannings formilas not hold
good
•In India channel design done by hypotheticaln theories
given by
1. Kennedy’s theory
2. Lacey’s theory

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Kennedy’s theory (1895)

R G Kennedy (an executive engineer of Punjab PWD) in 1895 carried out extensive
investigations on some of the canals reaches in the Upper Bari Doab canal system
and came up with this theory.

According to Kennedy the critical velocity ratio Vc in a

channel may be defined as the mean velocity of flow which
will just keep the channel free from silting or scouring.

Vc  0.55 m h 0.64
m = Critical velocity ratio
= 1.1 to 1.2 for coarse sand
= 0.8 to 0.9 for fine sand
h – Depth of flow in m
Q
A=
Vc
Q – Discharge
A – Area of flow

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

1  0.00155  
n   23  
  S 
V  RS Kutters Formula
  0.00155  n 
1   23   
  S  R

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R S Manning’s Formula
n

V – Velocity of flow
V  C RS Chezy’s Formula R – Hydraulic mean depth
S – Bed slope
n – Manning coefficient
C – Chezy’s constant

Area =A= b h
Wetted perimeter =P= b+2h

Area =A= (b +mh)h

1
Wetted perimeter =P  b  2h 1  m 2
m

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Design on irrigation canal using Kennedy’s

equation from the following data;
Full supply discharge = 14 m3/sec
Bed slope = 1 in 5000
Chezy’s constant = 47
Critical velocity ratio = 1.0
Assume any other data required suitably

Full supply discharge (Q) = 14 m3/sec

Bed slope (S) = 1 in 5000
Chezy’s constant (C) = 47
Critical velocity ratio (m) = 1.0

Assume depth of flow (h) = 1.8 m

Vc  0.55 m h0.64

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Note:
V = Vc The design is safe & Most economical design

V < Vc The design is safe. Then one more trail need to do

with smaller depth of flow (h) and repeat the design
process.

V > Vc The design is not safe. Then one more trail need to
do with larger depth of flow (h) and repeat the design
process.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

 Assume a depth of flow = h, m

 Compute the critical velocity from kennady’s formula
 Compute are of c/s of flow = Q/Vc
 Assuming a side slope of channel, if it is not given, say 0.5:1
compute the bed width
 Compute the wetted perimeter for the assumed depth
computed bed width
 Calculate C from Kutter’s formula and then the velocity of
flow by Chezy’s equation
 If the Velocity computed now is same as found by
kennady’s method the design depth is correct
 Otherwise repeat the above steps by assuming different
depth of flow

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

LACEY’S THEORY

Regime Channel
• The basis for designing such an ideal, non-silting,
non-scoring channel is that, whatever silt has
entered the channel at its head is kept in
suspension, so that it does not settle down and
deposit at any point of channel. Moreover the
velocity of the water should be such that it does
not produce local silt by erosion of channel bed
and slopes.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

LACEY’S THEORY

The regime theory postulates that a channel with

erodible boundaries tends to adjust the dimensions
viz., width, depth and slope in order to attain a state of
equilibrium called REGIME STATE.

Two regimes – Initial and Final

Two regimes – initial and final

Initial regime occurs immediately after

constructing and putting the channel under use by
adjustment of bed form by silting or scouring.

Final regime occurs after long time adjustment of

bed width and banks.

When the channel reaches a regime condition the

channel conveys water smoothly without
deposition or scouring.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

LACEY’S THEORY
1/ 6
Q f 2 
Flow velocity V   m / sec
 140 

Silt factor f  1.76 m

Q
C r o . a r ea o f ch a n n el A
V
Where,
m is mean particle size, mm
Q is discharge in cumec

W etted Perim eter P  4.75 Q

A 5 V 2 
Hydraulic mean depth R   
P 2 f 

 f 5/3 
Bed slop of the channel S   1/6 
 3340 Q 

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Design on irrigation canal using Lacey’s

equation from the following data:
Full supply discharge = 14 m3/sec
Side slope : 1 : 2 (Horz : Vertical)
Coefficient of rugosity N = 0.0225
Mean particle size = 0.325 mm

Silt factor f  1.76 m

1/ 6
Q f 2 
Flow velocity V   m / sec
 140 
Q
C r o . a r ea o f ch a n n el A
V

W etted Perim eter P  4.75 Q

A 5 V 2 
Hydraulic mean depth R   
P 2 f 

 f 5/3 
Bed slop of the channel S   1/6 
 3340 Q 

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Area =A= b h
Wetted perimeter =P= b+2h

Area =A= (b +mh)h

Wetted perimeter =P  b  2h 1  m 2
1
m
If m= 0.5 (or) 1(H):2(V)

P  P 2  6.944* A
h
3.472
b  P  2.236* h

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Requirements
• The channel flows uniformly in incoherent alluvium bed.
• Incoherent alluvium is the loose granular material which
can scour or deposit with the same ease .
• The characteristics and the discharge of the sediment are
constant .
• The perfect regime condition exist .

Design procedure
 Q and m are initially known
 Calculate the silt factor “f”
 Compute Vc from Lazey’s equation
 Compute A from continuity equation
 Compute P & S from Lazey’s equations

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Kennedy theory Lacey’s theory

1.It states that the silt carried by the 1.It states that the silt carried by the
following water is kept in suspension by following water is kept in suspension by
the vertical component of eddies which are the vertical component of eddies which are
generated from the bed of the channel. generated from the entire wetted perimeter
of the channel.

2. Relation between ‘V’ & ‘d’. 2. Relation between ‘V’ & ‘R’.

3. Critical velocity ratio ‘m’ is introduced 3. Silt factor ‘f’ is introduced to make the
to make the equation applicable to diff. equation applicable to diff. channels with
channels with diff. silt grades. diff. silt grades.
4., kutter’s equation is used for finding the 4. This theory given an equation for
mean velocity. finding the mean velocity.

5. This theory gives no equation for bed 5. This theory gives an equation for bed
slope. slope.
6.In this theory, the design is based on trial 6. This theory does not in valve trial and
and error method. error method.

The difference between Kennedy’s and Lacey’s

theory is that Kennedy considered the depth of
flow (d) as significant variable and Lacey
considered the Hydraulic radius (R) as the
significant variable

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Draw backs in Lacey’s theory:

• The concept of true regime is only theoretical and
cannot be achieved practically.
• The various equations are derived by considering the
silt Factor of which is not at all constant.
• The concentration of silt is not taken into account.
• The silt grade and silt charge are not clearly defined.
• The equations are empirical and based on the
available data from a particular type of channel.
• The characteristics of regime of channel may not be
same for all cases.

Reservoir Sedimentation

 Sedimentation is a difficult problem for which an

economical solution has not yet been discovered,
except by providing a “dead storage” to
accommodate the deposits during the life of the
dam.

 Disintegration, erosion, transportation, and

sedimentation, are the different stages leading to
silting of reservoir.

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Reservoir Sedimentation

Sedimentation stored in Reservoir

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

Causes of sedimentation

 Nature of soil in catchment area

 Topography of the catchment area
 Cultivation in catchment area
 Vegetation cover in catchment area
 Intensity of rainfall in catchment area

River training
The expression river training implies various measures adopted on
a river to direct and guide the river flow, to train and regulate the
river bed or to increase the low water depth

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Dr Saravanan K, SCE, VIT Chennai 01-11-2022

River training: Why?

For constructing a hydraulic structure across a river, a water resources
engineer must also consider the effect of the structure on the hydraulics
of the river and the best ways to train the river such that the structure
performs satisfactorily and also there is no significant damage to the
riverine environment.

River training: Necessity

1. High flood discharge may pass safely and quickly through the reach
2. Sediment load including bed and suspended load may be transported
efficiently
3. To make the river course stable and reduce bank erosion to minimum
4. To provide sufficient draft for navigation and good course for it
5. To fix direction of flow through certain defined reach

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