i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 3 2 7 6 2 e3 2 7 6 7

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Supercritical phases of hydrogen

B. Ibrahimoglu, Y. Sarikaya, A. Veziroglu, B. Ibrahimoglu Jr., M. Onal,

B. Gokbel*

highlights

Literature values for hydrogen are used for the graphical examination of the supercritical phases on phase diagrams.

Liquid-vapor, superheated steam, overcritical fluid and supercritical fluid regions were determined on the phase diagram.

Supercritical region observed starting at approximately 8 bar pressure between 34-36 K isotherms.

Critical pressure of ionization or decomposition for H2 molecules was found as 1800 bar.

Supercritical fluid formation explained thermodynamically and a novel p-T phase diagram for hydrogen provided.

article info abstract

Article history: Using experimental data from literature [1], hydrogen density-pressure (r-P) and density-
Received 1 June 2021 temperature (r-T) phase diagrams were drawn and evaluated for various pressure and
Received in revised form temperature intervals. Solid, liquid, vapor, gas, supercritical liquid, supercritical gas and
2 July 2021 supercritical fluid regions were identified on the obtained diagrams. There are exact
Accepted 6 July 2021 equilibrium boundaries between subcritical phases. On the contrary, it is concluded that
Available online 13 August 2021 there are no such exact boundaries for supercritical phases. Formation of the supercritical
fluid between liquid and gas phases explained thermodynamically with first and second
Keywords: order partial derivatives of chemical potential relative to pressure at constant
Hydrogen temperature.
Phase diagram © 2021 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Chemical potential
Metastable state
Supercritical fluid

shown promising effect on lowering hazardous discharges

Introduction [7e17]. As another solution, supercritical water gasification
(SCWG) for coal is being used operating at 373  C and 22 MPa
Depending on the energy source used and the impurities of [18e23] providing energy conversation compared to conven-
the substance; CO, NO, NO2, SO2 and SO3 gases are being tional coal gasification having 1200  C operation temperature.
discharged together with H2O and CO2 causing major envi- Hydrogen (H2) gas, used for ammonia (NH3) production and
ronment problems such as acid rains and greenhouse effect. solidification of edible oils, is produced via the catalytic re-
Therefore, generating safe and sustainable energy sources has action of natural gas or other light hydrocarbons with water
become a major problem. at high temperature and undesired CO2 is produced in the
Lately, developments in coal gasification [2e4] and com- process. Whereas, H2, CO, CO2 and CH4 gas mixture with
bustion fume carbon dioxide capturing processes [4e6] have higher hydrogen mole fraction is obtained via SCWG [24e27].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Gokbel).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.07.032
0360-3199/© 2021 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 3 2 7 6 2 e3 2 7 6 7 32763

Considering the provided information, SCWG process is Hydrogen density-pressure (r-P) diagram
sustainable economically and environmentally compared to
burning and/or conventional gasification. Density-pressure (r-P) diagram for hydrogen having iso-
Hydrogen gas used for ammonia (NH3) production and therms from 20 K to 500 K with pressure between 0 and 50 bar
for solidification of liquid edible oils, is produced via the is provided in Fig. 1. Critical 33 K isotherm drawn with dotted
catalytic reaction of natural gas or light hydrocarbons with line. Liquid-vapor heterogeneous mixture, supercritical fluid,
water at high temperatures and high amounts of undesired supercritical gas, real gas and ideal gas regions were drawn
CO2 is produced through the processes. To overcome that, approximately and color coded.
studies to develop reactors to produce high purity hydrogen Phase diagram provided in Fig. 1 obtained and evaluated
gas [28e31] from different raw materials such as biomass regarding the supercritical state boundaries and conditions
[32e35], municipal waste [36], coal [37e41], agricultural for hydrogen. Density-pressure (r-P) diagram for hydrogen
waste [42e44], forest waste [45], sludge [46,47] were being having isotherms from 22 K to 50 K with pressure between
held [48e54]. 0 and 25 bar is provided in Fig. 2. The r-P diagram between
State of pure substance over critical point between gas 0 and 25 bar was investigated for the understanding of the
and liquid boundaries on the phase diagram, considered as supercritical formation.
a liquid gas mixture, and is referred to as supercritical fluid. Supercritical fluid region observed, starting from 5 to 10 bar
Due to critical parameter being considerably high and rela- interval, just over the critical temperature isotherm expand-
tively hard to examine and experiment, determining exact ing with increasing pressure. For the investigation of super-
boundaries for the supercritical region appears fairly critical fluid at high pressure, density pressure diagram at
difficult. high pressures was drawn. Density-pressure (r-P) diagram for
On the other hand, investigation of hydrogen gas, which hydrogen having 38 Ke500 K isotherms between 0 and
acts different than all other gases when cooled to absolute 2000 bar is provided in Fig. 3. Real gas, ideal gas and super-
zero temperature [65,66,70,71], and the determination of critical gas region, formed over critical temperature, drawn
supercritical region boundary is of great importance scien- approximately due to the nonexistence of exact equilibrium
tifically, environmentally and economically for the industry boundaries. The region with isotherms of low temperature
to generate safe and sustainable solutions. For this reason, close to each other corresponds to liquid. At higher tempera-
determination of supercritical state boundaries on the tures, region with isotherms varying curvilinear is character-
phase diagram via the investigation of density-temperature ized as real gas and region with linear varying isotherms is
(r-T) isobars and density-pressure (r-P) isotherms for referred to as ideal gas.
hydrogen is projected as the aim of this study. Approximately 1800 bar pressure, the liquid phase iso-
therms’ intersection point, is evaluated as the critical pres-
sure, for the decomposition or ionization of H2 molecules
Investigation of the diagrams [50,54e59].

Physical properties such as mass (m), volume (V), pressure (P) Hydrogen density-temperature (r-T) diagram
and temperature (T) stating pure substance's position on the Hydrogen density-temperature (r-T) diagram, consisting of
phase diagram are referred to as state variables. Generally, different isobars for various pressure values, drawn from the
density (r ¼ m/V) is used rather than mass and volume and literature [1] data provided in Fig. 4. Critical temperature and
when mass is held constant, V and r quantities vary pressure of hydrogen are Tcr ¼ 33 K and Pcr ¼ 13 bar respec-
depending on T and P variables. Mathematical expressions tively. Diagram was drawn considering provided parameters
between those quantities are called state equations and the and liquid-vapor, supercritical fluid, supercritical liquid and
geometrical graphical expressions of these quantities are supercritical gas regions were provided.
phase diagrams. Two dimensional phase diagrams are drawn
holding one variable constant.
Shapes of the isotherms and isobars, the intersections of
their extensions on the axes and their positions at another
point on two dimensional phase diagrams were physico-
chemically evaluated. Intersection of isobars’ extension with
the temperature axis for the ideal gas V-T phase diagram is
defined as absolute zero temperature by Kelvin in 1840
[60e68]. Absolute zero temperature (T ¼ 0 K ¼ 273.15  C) and
the impossibility of reaching temperature values below ab-
solute zero has been proven by the second law of thermody-
namics. Furthermore, ionization temperature and thermal
degradation temperature of compounds can be determined
with similar graphical methods [69,71]. Also, critical pressure
determining the upper endpoint of liquid-solid equilibrium
curve for the pure substance can be reached via graphical
methods [72e76]. Fig. 1 e Hydrogen r-P diagram.
32764 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 3 2 7 6 2 e3 2 7 6 7

given in Fig. 5. Supercritical fluid region obtained as a result of

the studies is provided in the phase diagrams below.
Hydrogen, having critical temperature of 33 K and 13 bar
critical pressure, starts forming supercritical fluid under 8 bar
pressure between 34 and 36 K temperature intervals and as
can be seen in Figs. 1, Figs. 4 and 5, the existence of super-
critical fluid continues with increasing pressure staying in
between the temperature range it occurs.

Supercritical fluid formation

Although there are precise equilibrium positions between

Fig. 2 e Hydrogen r-P diagram between 0 and 25 bar subcritical phases, there are regions without exact boundaries
pressures. between overcritical phases. As provided in the phase dia-
grams above, there exists a region between overcritical liquid
and overcritical gas referred as supercritical fluid. Supercriti-
cal fluid region located just over the critical point, within a
temperature range, extending with increasing pressure. It is
predicted that, formation of the supercritical fluid can be
explained thermodynamically as continuous flow of matter
between overcritical liquid and gas phases.
Free enthalpy per mole (Gibbs energy) chemical potential
(m ¼ g/n) defined as the driving force of mass transfer. Chemical
potential (m) of pure substances varies depending on pressure (P)
and temperature (T). As with isotherms, m is only dependent to
pressure under constant temperature. Based on the mathe-
matical expressions of thermodynamic state functions, first and
second partial derivatives of chemical potential relative to
pressure under constant temperature are respectively:
Fig. 3 e Hydrogen r-P diagram between 0 and 2000 bar
pressures. ð vm=vPÞT ¼ V > 0 (1)



v2 m v2 P T ¼ ð vV=vPÞT < 0 (2)

First partial derivative affects the liquid and second de-

rivative is for the gas phase. Liquid phase partially gasifies
resulting increase in volume so a decrease in density accord-
ing to the first partial derivative. On the contrary, according to
the second partial derivative, volume of the liquid phase is not
affected much, while volume of the gas phase decreases and
thus its density increases.
Different shapes of the isotherms on density-pressure (r-P)
diagram are a result of the efficiency competition between the
two derivatives effecting volume in opposite ways. As seen in
Fig. 2, decreasing volume increases the density due to second
partial derivative affecting at 34 K isotherm and in contrast,
increasing volume decreases the density under first partial
Fig. 4 e Hydrogen r-T phase diagram. derivative at 36 K isotherm. Effect of the first partial derivative
lasts up to 22 bar and with two relations coming to equilibrium
at higher pressures; supercritical fluid region extends gradu-
Isobars collected at a density between 0.035 and 0.04 mol/ ally between 34 and 36 K isotherms. Supercritical fluid for-
cm3 at 16 K temperature can be seen from the diagram. mation ends when these conditions are no more.
Increasing temperature to 33 K and after 13 bar pressure, su-
percritical fluid formation is observed.
Pressure-temperature (P-T) phase diagram of
Hydrogen pressure-temperature (P-T) phase diagram hydrogen modeled as hydrogen core atom

Pressure-temperature (P-T) phase diagrams for hydrogen be- With the findings of this study alongside the data obtained
tween 0.01 and 100 bar pressure and 5e55 K temperature are from literature [64,65,70], P-T phase diagram for hydrogen
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 3 2 7 6 2 e3 2 7 6 7 32765

Fig. 5 e Hydrogen P-T (V constant) phase diagrams for different temperature and pressure intervals.

6. Besides having the subcritical and supercritical phases

mentioned above, a spherical P-T phase diagram for
hydrogen containing also plasma and metallic phases' re-
gions possible placements is provided.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing

financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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