SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS

PEOPLE AND THE EARTH’S

ECOSYSTEM/ ENVIRONMENTAL
PECOSY 1/ SCIENCE
Prepared by: MARICAR B. LITILIT, PhD
GELECT 3/ MARIA THERESA B. MAÑALAC, MAEd
OLIVER EDWARD JOSE Z. GARCIA, RMT, MSMT
GELECT 4 ROUEL N. DE ASIS, HCS NCII, PTRP, LPT, MBA

Prepared by
A Self-regulated Learning Module
PECOSY 1/ GELECT 3/ GELECT 4
PEOPLE AND THE EARTH’S
ECOSYSTEM/
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

For the Use of University of Baguio

Compiled and Prepared by:

MARICAR B. LITILIT, PhD

MARIA THERESA B. MAÑALAC, MAEd
OLIVER EDWARD JOSE Z. GARCIA, RMT, MSMT
ROUEL N. DE ASIS, HCS NCII, PTRP, LPT, MBA

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Requirements of the Course:

1. Regular Attendance to classes: You must attend online classes and live quizzes regularly by
logging in to our scheduled online activities. Online lectures will be done through Google
meet and/or facebook live. Assessments shall be given through Quizziz, Canvas and/or
Google forms. For offline students, your attendance will be monitored through your
responses to text information and through timely correspondence.
2. Submission of required activities: All required activities (assignments and research works)
should be submitted on or before the given deadline. Deadlines will be posted by the
teacher in the google classroom and messenger group chat. It will also be texted to offline
students.
For online students, requirements must be submitted to the Google Classroom and/or the
teacher’s email address which will be provided during the class orientation. For offline
students, requirements must be submitted via mail or express courier (e.g. LBC, JRS)
addressed to: Instructor’s name, School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts, University of
Baguio, Baguio City.
3. Seventy percent (70%) passing score in all required activities: Quizzes, examinations,
assignments, research works.

Computation of grades:
The cumulative system of computing grades shall be followed. Grades computed for midterms
and finals are considered tentative. The final midterm grade is calculated by getting 1/3 of the
first grading grade plus 2/3 of the tentative midterm grade and the final grade is computed by
getting 1/3 of the midterm grade plus 2/3 of the tentative final grade.

Study/Learning Guidelines:

➢ Take responsibility for your education. Be responsible of whatever

results/consequences of your own actions.
➢ Attend every class. Important note: If you miss a class, it is your responsibility to meet
with the instructor, outside of regular class time, to determine a plan to make up the
missed work.
➢ Get to class on time. This will avoid disruptions of the discussion and for you to hear
announcements which are usually given at the start of the class.
➢ Respect your instructor. Openly challenging the instructor's knowledge or authority in
the classroom is not appropriate. If you take issue with the instructor's information or
instructional methods, make sure that your comments are made without confrontation
or antagonism. You may want to discuss your issues with her or him privately.

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 Assignments and classroom activities are at the prerogative of the instructor. Each
instructor has the freedom and authority to set the guidelines and policies for his or her
classroom (within the overall policies of the College).
➢ Your classmates deserve your respect and support. Others may have ideas and opinions
that differ from yours, or they may struggle to understand information as quickly as their
peers. But they deserve the same level of respect from you as you wish to receive from
them.
➢ Come to class prepared. Students who have not completed their assigned homework
many times ask questions that could have been answered through their assignments.
➢ Turn in your work on time. It is important to plan ahead. Students who wait until the
last minute to do their work usually make lower grades and are more likely to miss
deadlines. Study and do your assignments every day. Doing so ensures that if a problem
occurs at the last minute, such as a computer malfunction, you will still be prepared.

Points to Consider While Doing Your Assigned Tasks

• Make sure you read everything carefully and thoroughly. This includes readings,
assignments, course parameters and any other materials.
• Take note of assignment deadlines and track them on a calendar.
• Read all updates through the FB page group, messenger and emails from your teacher.
These often provide further guidelines on assignments and updates and changes to
deadlines or assignment parameters.
• Communicate with your instructor about issues you are experiencing or questions you
may have early and often. It’s much easier to help you from the front end than it is after
deadlines have passed.
• Make sure your technology is reliable and consistent and have a backup plan in place for
when your internet or computer fails you (as it most certainly will).
• Yes, grammar and spelling matter. Your written communication should be professional
and reflect proper writing style. Save written shortcuts and less than stellar grammar
for Snapchat if you must, but follow grammar rules for school.
• Cite your sources. Whenever you are sharing an idea that originated from someone else
(even if it is not word for word), it is good practice to cite that source. This applies to
discussion forums too. If you read a great thought in your text, share it, but be sure you
let your audience know where you saw it first.

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 INTRODUCTION OF THE MODULE

Course Code GELECT 3/ PECOSY 1/ GELECT 4

Course Title People and the Earth’s Ecosystem/ ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Course Description

This course will examine the impact of human activities on the environment and the consequences
of environmental modification on human activity. Humans and natural, biological and physical systems,
from local to global scales, are interrelated. The better we understand our relationship with nature, the
better we will be able to anticipate the consequences of our actions and to make informed choices on which
human actions are most desirable for the long-term health of human societies and natural ecosystems.
Moreover, this course is designed to introduce nonbiology majors to the natural world and ecological
interactions, and to focus on the ways in which humans modify and interfere with the functioning of terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems, the atmosphere, lithosphere, and so forth.
The course begins with an understanding of the environmental issues we face, how environmental
sustainability and human values play a critical role in addressing these issues, how the environmental
movement developed over time and was shaped by economics, and how environmental threats from many
sources create health hazards that must be evaluated. Next are the intricacies of ecological concepts in a
human-dominated world, including energy flow and the cycling of matter through ecosystems, and the
various ways that species interact and divide resources. Gaining familiarity with these concepts allows
students to better appreciate the variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that are then introduced, and
to develop a richer understanding of the implications of human population change for the environment.
Then the world resources, as we use them today and as we assess their availability and impacts for the
future, are tackled. This includes issues such as the sources and effects of air pollution, climate and global
atmospheric change, freshwater resources, causes and effects of water pollution, the ocean and fisheries,
mineral and soil resources, land resources, agriculture and food resources, biological resources, solid and
hazardous waste, and nonrenewable and renewable energy resources. The topics are organized around
the premise that humans are inextricably linked to the world’s environmental dilemmas. Understanding how
different parts of Earth’s systems change, and how those changes affect other parts and systems, prepares
us to make better choices as we deal with environmental problems we encounter everyday in our lives.

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 STUDY SCHEDULE

WEEK TOPICS ASSESSMENT TASKS

1 INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY, Real World Scenario. Synthesis and

BIODIVERSITY Reflection Paper
ECOSYSTEM, CLIMATE, AND POPULATION
GROWTH

2 The Environmental Challenges We Face Written Quiz

3 Sustainability And Human Values Written Quiz

4 Environmental Protection Laws Synthesis and reflection Paper, Small

Group Discussion

Summaries and reflections, Written Quiz

Epidemiological Environment
5 Ecosystem Written quiz, Concept Maps, Diagrams,
Summary and Reflection Paper

6 FIRST GRADING EXAMINATION

7 EARTH’S MAJOR BIOMES Written quiz, Synthesis Paper, Diagrams

8 POPULATION ECOLOGY Real world scenario, Synthesis and

Reaction paper

9 AIR AND AIR POLLUTION Diagram, Graphic Organizer

Global Atmospheric Changes Synthesis and Reaction Paper
10
Freshwater Resources And Water Pollution Written quiz, Real World scenario,
11 The Ocean And The Fisheries Summaries and Reflections

12 MIDTERM EXAMINATION

13 Mineral And Soil Resources Written quiz, Real World scenario

14 Land Resources Written quiz, Real World scenario

15 Biodiversity And Conservation Written quiz, Journal Research Critiquing

16 Solid And Hazardous Wastes Written quiz

17 Nonrenewable Energy Resources Analysis Paper, Written quiz, Sustainability

Renewable Energy Resources Plan

18 FINAL EXAMINATION

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

REQUIREMENTS OF THE COURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

STUDY/LEARNING GUIDELINES . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

INTRODUCTION OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

STUDY SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY

ECOSYSTEM, CLIMATE, AND POPULATION GROWTH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

CHAPTER 2: THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES WE FACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

CHAPTER 3: SUSTAINABILITY AND HUMAN VALUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

CHAPTER 4: ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION LAWS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHAPTER 5: EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

CHAPTER 6: ECOSYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

CHAPTER 7: EARTH’S MAJOR BIOMES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

CHAPTER 8: POPULATION ECOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

CHAPTER 9: AIR AND AIR POLLUTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

CHAPTER 10: GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CHANGES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

CHAPTER 11: FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND WATER POLLUTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

CHAPTER 12: THE OCEAN AND FISHERIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

CHAPTER 13: MINERAL AND SOIL RESOURCES. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

CHAPTER 14: LAND RESOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

CHAPTER 15: AGRICULTURE AND FOOD RESOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

CHAPTER 16: BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

CHAPTER 17: SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CHAPTER 18: RENEWABLE ENERGY and NON-RENEWABLE

ENERGY SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..123
REFERENCES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY, ECOSYSTEM, CLIMATE, AND POPULATION
GROWTH

I. Introduction
This module presents an introduction to the course on People and the Earth’s Ecosystems.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

On completion of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. identify the different personalities that contributed on the study on Ecology and the Ecosystem;
2. describe the components of Biodiversity;
3. internalize the effects of Biodiversity on the different species;
4. differentiate between Weather and Climate; and
5. illustrate the key features of a Population.

III. Lesson Proper

A. Ecology is the study of interrelationship of different organisms with each other and with their
environment. It is also concerned with the general principles that apply to both animals and
plants.

The word Ecology came from the word Oikos which means house,
habitat, or place of living and the word Logos means to study (Ernst
Haeckel, 1869)

Objectives of Ecology
1. It is important for humanity to understand its environment because we
have the ability to modify it through the use of technology and through
overexploitation of natural resources as a result of greed or sheer
pressure of numbers.
2. Therefore, Ecology is more than just the understanding of the interrelationships between
organisms and their environment; it also has social, political, economic, and technological
dimensions.
3. It also is a study of evolutionary development of organisms, the biological productivity, and
energy flow in the natural system.
4. To develop mathematical models to relate interaction of parameters and to predict the
effects.

B. Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth and the essential interdependence of all living things.
Scientists have identified more than 1.4 million species. Tens of millions still remain unknown.
The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made possible by complex interactions among all
living things, including microorganisms.

Three components of biodiversity

1. Diversity of genes - It is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of
a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristics to vary. In an ecosystem, diversity can refer to the number of different species
or ecological niches that are present.

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 2. Diversity of number of species – monkeys, dragonflies, and meadow beauties are all
different species.

3. Variety of ecosystems – lakes, ponds, and rivers are all freshwater ecosystems. Rocky
coast, sand dune, estuary, salt marsh, coral reef are all marine ecosystems

C. Ecosystem (Sir Arthur George Tansley, 1935) is the

system resulting from the interaction of all the living and
nonliving factors of the environment. An ecosystem
consists of the biological community that occurs in some
locale, and the physical and chemical factors that make up
its non-living or abiotic environment.

D. Climate is an area’s long-term pattern of weather.

E. Population is all the individuals of a species that live in an area. Demography is the statistical
study of populations, allows predictors to be made about how a population will change.

Three key features of population

1. Size – number of individuals in an area. This is determined by the growth rate, which is how
many individuals are born versus how many die
2. Density – measurement of populationper unit area or unit volume. Population density is the
number of individuals per unit of space.

How do you affect density?

a. Immigration is movement of individuals into a population

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 b. Emigration is movement of individuals out of a population
c. Density-dependent factors. Biotic factors in an environment that have an increasing
effect as population size increases
d. Density-independent factors. Abiotic factors in the environment that affect population
regardless of their density

3. Dispersion – the spatial pattern of individuals in a population relative to one another.

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IV. Assessment
Essay: How does the increase in the influx of tourists here in Baguio City during the holiday season
and/or Panagbenga Flower Festival affect the ecosystem of the city?
Format: Short bond paper, Arial 10 font, single space
Skill Excellent (5) Good (4) Satisfactory (3) Poor (2) Failing (1)
Category
Organizatio Presentation Above average Competent Unclear focus Focus of
n (10pts) contains a focus on focus on on assignment
clear and solid assignment assignment assignment is largely
thesis. and logical and logical and/or logical absent.
prompts. prompts. prompts.
Content Excellent Strong critical Adequate Inadequate Absence of
(15pts) critical thinking skills. critical thinking display of critical
thinking skills. Position skills. Position critical thinking.
reasonably adequately thinking, Position not
developed and developed and Position developed
supported. supported by obscure or or
Appropriate logic, under supported,
use of logic, reasoning, and developed. and remians
reasoning, and analysis, Mostly unclear.
analysis. Adequately summarizatio
Strongly responsive n than
responsive essay. analysis is
essay. displayed.
Mechanics Well Organizef and Adequately Organization Disorganize
(5pts) organized and reasoably organized and and coherent d and/or
coherent. coherent. coherent. limited. incoherent,
Displays a Communicates Displays Lapses in and flow of
smooth and writer’s ideas adequate flow of ideas ideas is
effective rationally and progression of are evident. problematic.
progression of is generally ideas and is Very Poor,
ideas. Easily understandable only generally incosistent. unintelligible
understable. . Good English understandable English use of
Excellent language . Incosistent language English
English writing and English skills. writing skills. writing skills.
language communication
writing and skills. Good
communicatio format.
n skills.
Clearly
excellent in
format.

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 CHAPTER 2
THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES WE FACE

I. Introduction
This module presents the human impacts on the environment.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

On completion of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. distinguish among highly developed countries, moderately developed countries, and less
developed countries;
2. relate human population size to natural resources and resource consumption;
3. describe the three factors that are most important in determining human impact on the
environment;
4. define sustainability;
5. Identify human behaviors that threaten environmental sustainability;
6. Define environmental science; and
7. Outline the steps of the scientific method

III. Lesson Proper

A. The most significant factor impacting the health of the Earth’s environment is A LARGE AND
GROWING HUMAN POPULATION. In 2011, the human population as a whole passed 7 billion
individuals in a brief span of time. The more than 7 billion people consume vast quantities of
food and water, occupy or farm much of the most productive land, use a great deal of energy
and raw materials, and produce much waste.

The world population may stabilize toward the

end of the 21st century, given the family planning
efforts that are currently under way. The fertility
rate varies, from 1.7 in highly developed
countries to 4.5 in some of the less developed
countries. Despite most countries’ involvement
with family planning, population growth rates
don’t change overnight. The coming decades
may very well see many problems.

Poverty incidence among Filipinos in the first semester of 2015 was estimated at 26.3%.
Poverty is a condition in which people are unable to meet their basic needs for food, clothing,
shelter, education. Or health. A family of five needed at least Php 6,365 every month to meet
the basic food needs. Poverty is associated with a short life expectancy, illiteracy, and
inadequate access to health services, safe water, and balanced nutrition.

Consumption – the human use of material and energy.

Economic growth – the expansion in output of a nation’s goods and services.
• The world’s economy is growing at an enormous rate, yet this growth is unevenly distributed
across the nations of the world.

B. Gap Between Rich and Poor Countries

1. Highly developed countries – with complex industrialized bases, low rates of population
growth, and high per person incomes (18% of the world’s population): United States of
America, Canada, Most of Europe, and Japan
2. Moderately developed countries – fewer opportunities for income, education, and health
care: Turkey, South Africa, Thailand, and Mexico

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 3. Less developed countries – cheap, unskilled labor is abundant, but capital investment is
scarce: Haiti, Bangladesh, Rwanda, and Laos

The amount of resources essential to an individual’s survival is small, but rapid population
growth tends to overwhelm and deplete a country’s soils, forests, and other natural resources.
In highly developed nations, individual demands on natural resources are far greater than the
requirements for mere survival. Many people in more affluent nations deplete resources and
degrade the global environment through increased consumption of energy, material goods, and
agricultural products.

C. Types of Resources

1. Nonrenewable resources – natural resources that are present in limited supplies and are
depleted as they are used.
2. Renewable resources – resources that are replaced by natural processes and that can be
used forever, provided that they are not overexploited in the short term: trees, fishes, fertile
agricultural soil, and fresh water.

The effects of population growth on natural resources are particularly critical in developing
countries. The economic growth of developing countries is frequently tied to the exploitation of
their natural resources often for export to highly developed countries. Continued growth and
development in highly developed countries now relies significantly on the importation of these
resources from less developed countries.

A larger population consumes more resources and causes more environmental damage than
does a smaller population. However, not all people consume the same amounts of resources.
Variation in consumption is associated with economic status, geography, culture, and other
social and personal factors.

Highly developed countries account for the lion’s share of total resources consumed:
86% of aluminum used
76% of timber harvested
68% of energy produced
61% of meat eaten
42% of the fresh water consumed
These nations also generate 75% of the world’s pollution and waste.

D. Sustainability and the Environment

Sustainability – achieved when the environment can function indefinitely without going into a
decline from the stresses that human society imposes on natural system.

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E. Environmental Science

This deals with the study of our environment, either globally or locally, and its living and non-
living components.
1. Natural sciences – Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, and Medicine
2. Social sciences – Economics, Political Science, Sociology, History, Philosophy, and Ethics
3. Other sciences – Mathematics, Statistics, Technology, Business and Management, Law,
Religion, Morality, and Aesthetics

Goals of Environmental Science

1. To develop a sustainable world – a world in which the supply of food, water, building
materials, clean air, and other resources can sustain human population to continue to exist
indefinitely with a high standard of living and health.
2. To study environmental problems and issues; priorities regarding acceptable environmental
preservation of natural species and habitats; freedom of nations to do as they please, within
their own potential boundaries and issues on the quality of life, fairness, and ethics.

In order to apply the principles of Environmental Science, Scientific Method should be used.
This is the way a scientist approaches a problem, by formulating a hypothesis (a statement of
an expectation) and then testing them to form theories (Integrated explanation of numerous
hypotheses, supported by a large body of observations and experiments).

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IV. Assessment. Multiple Choice

1. _____ Which of the following 4. _____ Poverty is associated with a

countries is the most populous? long-life expectancy. It is also
A. China associated with inadequate access to
B. India health services and balance nutrition.
C. Russia A. First statement is correct. Second
D. United States statement is wrong.
2. _____ Poverty incidence in the B. First statement is wrong. Second
Philippines in 2015 was: statement is correct.
A. 25.3% C. Both statements are correct.
B. 26.3% D. Both statements are wrong.
C. 27.3% 5. _____ The fertility rate in highly
D. 28.3% developed countries is 1.7. In less
3. _____ A family of _____ needed at developed countries it is 5.5.
least Php 6,365 every month to meet A. First statement is correct, Second
the basic food needs. statement is wrong.
A. 3 B. First statement is wrong. Second
B. 4 statement is correct.
C. 5 C. Both statements are correct.
D. 6 D. Both statements are wrong.

Classify the following countries accordingly.

6. _____ Bangladesh A. Highly developed countries

7. _____ Canada B. Less developed countries
8. _____ Germany C. Moderately developed countries
9. _____ Haiti
10. _____ Japan
11. _____ Mexico
12. _____ Rwanda
13. _____ South Africa
14. _____ Turkey
15. _____ United States of America

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 Classify the following resources accordingly.
16. _____ Biofuel A. Nonrenewable Resources
17. _____ Coal B. Renewable resource
18. _____ Copper
19. _____ Diesel
20. _____ Fish
21. _____ Freshwater
22. _____ Gasoline
23. _____ Iron
24. _____ Talcum
25. _____ Trees
V. Suggested Reading Assignments
https://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-philippines-causes-constraints-and-opportunities
https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2019/05/28/countries-with-the-widest-gaps-between-rich-
and-poor/39510157/
https://www.mendeley.com/careers/article/environmental-science/

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 CHAPTER 3
SUSTAINABILITY AND HUMAN VALUES

I. Introduction
This module presents the sustainability of our environment and the values that we need to take care
of it

II. Objectives of the Lesson

On completion of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. define sustainable development;
2. outline some of the complexities associated with the concept of sustainable consumption;
3. contract voluntary simplicity and technological progress;
4. define environmental ethics;
5. discuss distinguishing features of the Western and Deep Ecology overviews; and
6. define environmental justice.

III. Lesson Proper

Let ours be a time remembered for the awakening of a new reverence for life, the firm resolve to
achieve sustainability, the quickening of the struggle for justice and peace, and the joyful celebration
of life. (Earth Charter, 1992)

A. Sustainable Development

It is the economic growth that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs.

Pollution and degradation of the environment are exacerbated as individuals in a population

consume large amounts of resources. People living in highly developed nations typically
consume disproportionately large shares of Earth’s resources and contribute disproportionately
to environmental degradation.

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 Lifestyle - Include all goods and services bought for food, clothing, housing, travel, recreation,
and entertainment. In evaluating consumption, all aspects of the product, use, and disposal of
these goods and services are taken into account, including environmental costs.

B. Sustainable Consumption

It is the use of goods and services that satisfy basic human needs and improve the quality of life
but also minimize resource use. At the global level, sustainable consumption requires the
eradication of poverty.

Developing countries should not be expected to avoid

or reduce environmental damage when to do so
hindered socially equitable economic development.
This in turn requires that poor people increase their
consumption of certain essential resources.

Widespread adoption of sustainable consumption will

not be easy. It will require major changes in the
consumption patterns and lifestyles of most people in
highly developed countries.

Voluntary simplicity – individual happiness and

quality of life are not necessarily linked to the
accumulation of material goods

While some individuals choose sustainable

consumption and voluntary simplicity, many people
do not. Many equate these ideas with unnecessary
sacrifice, and object to the idea of compulsory
reductions in consumption.

Continued technological progress

represents a promising opportunity for
maintaining high standards of living
while using fewer resources.

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C. Ethics

It is a branch of philosophy that is derived through the logical

application of human values. Environmental ethics is a field of
applied ethics that considers the moral basis of environmental
responsibility.

These values are the principles that an individual or a society

considers important or worthwhile.

Environmental ethicists consider such issues as what role we should play in determining the
fate of Earth’s resources. How we might develop an environmental ethic that is acceptable in
the short term for us as individuals and also in the long term for our species and the planet.
Considers also the rights of future generations.

D. Environmental Worldviews
1. Western worldview (expansionist worldview) - based on human superiority over nature,
the unrestricted use of natural resources, and economic growth to manage an expanding
industrial base. Humans have a primary obligation to humans and are therefore responsible
for managing natural resources to benefit
human society.
• Anthropocentric – emphasizes on the
importance of humans as the overriding
concern in the grand scheme of things.
Earth could not support its more than 7
billion humans if each consumed high
level of goods and services sanctioned
by the Western worldview.
• Frontier attitude – desire to conquer
and exploit nature as quickly as possible.
2. Deep ecology overview - based on harmony with nature, a spiritual respect for life, and the
belief that humans and all other species have an equal worth.
• Biocentric – views humans as one species among others. The world could support only a
fraction of the existing human population.
• Both human and nonhuman life have intrinsic value.
• Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the flourishing of human and nonhuman
life on Earth.
• Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 19

 • Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is
rapidly worsening.
• The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease in the
human population.
• Improving human well-being requires economic, technological, and ideological changes.
• The ideological change is mainly that high quality of life need not be synonymous with
high levels of consumption.
• Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation to participate in the
attempt to implement the necessary changes.

E. Environmental Justice

This is the right of every citizen to adequate protection from environmental hazards.
• Eco-justice encompasses environmental inequalities faced by low-income minority
communities.

In the Philippine setting, any organization which advocates Environmental Justice?

Because people in low-income communities frequently lack access to sufficient health care,
they may not be treated adequately for exposure to environmental contaminants.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 20

 Low-income communities may not receive equal benefits from federal cleanup programs.
The poor tend to bear greater environmental burdens than the wealthy.
F. Overall Plan for Sustainable Living

1. Eliminate poverty and stabilize the human population

2. Protect and restore Earth’s resources
3. Provide adequate food for all people
4. Mitigate climate change
5. Design sustainable cities

IV. Assessment

Write A if the statement is true and B if it is false.

1. _____ Amassing wealth is important for the good of the community.
2. _____ Everything and everyone is related.
3. _____ Feeling comfortable is related to how successful you feel you have been in achieving
your goals.
4. _____ Human beings are most important in the world.
5. _____ Scientific, skeptical. Requiring proof as a basis of belief.
6. _____ Spiritually orientated society.
7. _____ The land and its resources should be available for development and extraction for the
benefit of humans.
8. _____ The land is sacred and usually given by a creator or supreme being.
9. _____ The land is sacred and usually given by a creator or supreme being.
10. _____ There can be many truths; truths are dependent upon individual experiences.

Classify the following views accordingly:

11. _____ A spiritual respect for life 17. _____ Illegal logging in vital Ipo
12. _____ Based on harmony with nature Watershed
13. _____ Based on human superiority 18. _____ The world could support only a
over nature fraction of the existing human
14. _____ Belief that humans and all population
other species have an equal worth 19. _____ Unrestricted use of natural
15. _____ Emphasizes on the importance resources
of humans as the overriding concern 20. _____ Views humans as one species
in the grand scheme of things among others
16. _____ Expansionist worldview A. Deep ecology worldview
B. Western worldview

A Self-regulated Learning Module 21

V. Suggested Reading Assignments
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/what-is-environmental-sustainability-and-sustainable-
development.php
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-consumption-production/
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/v/voluntary-simplicity.asp
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-environmental-justice-definition-principles-examples-
issues.html
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/environmental-justice

A Self-regulated Learning Module 22

 CHAPTER 4
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION LAWS

I. Introduction
This module presents the different Philippine Laws that protect the environment.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

On completion of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. define conservation and preservation; and
2. briefly outline the environmental protection laws of the Philippines.

III. Lesson Proper

A. Conservation and Preservation

Conservation is the sensible and careful management of natural resources while preservation
involves setting aside undisturbed areas, maintaining them in a pristine state, and protecting
them from human activities that might alter their “natural” state.

Plowing and plating fields in curves that conform to the natural contours of the land conserves
soil by reducing erosion.

B. Environmental Protection Laws

1. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines

• Article II: Declaration of Principles and State Policies
Sec. 15. The State shall protect and promote the right to health of the people and
instilling health consciousness among them.
Sec. 16. The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and
healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
• Article XII. National Economy and Patrimony
Sec. 4. The Congress shall, as soon as possible, determine by law the specific limits of
forest lands and national parks, marking clearly their boundaries on the ground.
Thereafter, such forest lands and national parks shall be considered and may not be
increased nor diminished, except by law.
2. PD 1151 (1979) – Philippine Environmental Policy
3. PD 1152 (Philippine Environmental Code)
• Air Quality Management
• Water Quality Management
• Land Use Management

A Self-regulated Learning Module 23

 • Natural Resources Management and Conservation
4. PD 1121 – Creating the National Environmental Protection Council
5. PD 1067 (1976) – Philippine Water Code
6. RA 8749 – The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
7. RA 9275 – The Philippine Clear Water Act of 2004
8. RA 6969 – Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990
9. RA 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

IV. Assessment

A. Assignment: List the 9 environmental protection laws and briefly describe each.
B. Small group discussion: discuss the assigned environmental protection law/s and its impact on
you as a student.

Rubrics
Skill Excellent (5) Good (4) Satisfactory (3) Poor (2) Failing (1)
Category
Organizatio Presentation Above average Competent Unclear focus Focus of
n contains a focus on focus on on assignment
clear and solid assignment assignment assignment is largely
thesis. and logical and logical and/or logical absent.
prompts. prompts. prompts.
Content Excellent Strong critical Adequate Inadequate Absence of
critical thinking skills. critical thinking display of critical
thinking skills. Position skills. Position critical thinking.
reasonably adequately thinking, Position not
developed and developed and Position developed
supported. supported by obscure or or
Appropriate logic, under supported,
use of logic, reasoning, and developed. and remians
reasoning, and analysis, Mostly unclear.
analysis. Adequately summarizatio
Strongly responsive n than
responsive essay. analysis is
essay. displayed.
Mechanics Well Organizef and Adequately Organization Disorganize
organized and reasoably organized and and coherent d and/or
coherent. coherent. coherent. limited. incoherent,
Displays a Communicates Displays Lapses in and flow of
smooth and writer’s ideas adequate flow of ideas ideas is
effective rationally and progression of are evident. problematic.
progression of is generally ideas and is Very Poor,
ideas. Easily understandable only generally incosistent. unintelligible
understable. . Good English understandable English use of
Excellent language . Incosistent language English
English writing and English skills. writing skills. writing skills.
language communication
writing and skills. Good
communicatio format.
n skills.
Clearly
excellent in
format.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 24

V. Suggested Reading Assignments
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/
https://lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/pd1977/pd_1151_1977.html
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1977/06/06/presidential-decree-no-1152-s-1977/
https://lawphil.net/statutes/presdecs/pd1977/pd_1121_1977.html
http://www.nwrb.gov.ph/images/laws/pd1067_amended.pdf
https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1999/ra_8749_1999.html
https://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2004/ra_9275_2004.html
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/10/26/republic-act-no-6969/
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2001/01/26/republic-act-no-9003-s-2001/

A Self-regulated Learning Module 25

 CHAPTER 5
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

I. Introduction
This module presents the different diseases that affect man in relation to his environment.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

On completion of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. define toxicology and epidemiology;
2. distinguish among the classes of diseases; and
3. distinguish among categories of diseases.

III. Lesson Proper

A. Determinants of Medical Ecology

Toxicology is the study of toxicants, chemicals with adverse effects on health. Epidemiology
is the study of the effects of chemical, biological, and physical agents on the health of human
populations.

Epidemiology is apparent during the height of the COVID-19 epidemic wherein scientists,
biologists, medical technologists, doctors among others tried to determine the population which
was the most vulnerable in contacting the coronavirus. They also tried to determine the
prevalence of the disease and the effects of the virus to the human body. However, as of
present time no vaccine has been developed yet.

* Vulnerable to manipulation by medical man. All the others are vulnerable to manipulation by
man or society. A vector is something which can transmit the virus (e.g. mosquito).

A Self-regulated Learning Module 26

B. Classes of Diseases

C. Categories of Diseases

A Self-regulated Learning Module 27

 D. Some Human Diseases Transmitted by Polluted Waters

IV. Assessment

Classify the following accordingly:

1. _____ AIDS A. Allergy
2. _____ Bacteria B. Developmental anomaly
3. _____ Dandruff C. Infectious disease
4. _____ Emphysema D. Pollution disease
5. _____ Food poisoning E. Stress disease
6. _____ Hepatitis A
7. _____ Pneumonia
8. _____ STD
9. _____ Superficial mycosis
10. _____ Virus

Classify the following infectious diseases accordingly:

11. _____ Acute coryza
12. _____ H fever
13. _____ Influenza
14. _____ Malaria
15. _____ Plague
16. _____ Pneumonia
17. _____ Q fever
18. _____ Typhus
19. _____ Yellow fever
A. 2-factor
B. 3-factor
C. 4-factor

A Self-regulated Learning Module 28

A Self-regulated Learning Module 29
 Essay: As a professional, how will you lessen the effects of social stigma on patients with COVID-19 that is brought
about by the current epidemic?

Format: Short bond paper, Arial 10 font, single space

Skill Excellent (5) Good (4) Satisfactory (3) Poor (2) Failing (1)
Category
Organization Presentation Above average Competent Unclear focus Focus of
contains a focus on focus on on assignment assignment
clear and solid assignment and assignment and and/or logical is largely
thesis. logical prompts. logical prompts. prompts. absent.
Content Excellent Strong critical Adequate Inadequate Absence of
critical thinking thinking skills. critical thinking display of critical
skills. Position skills. Position critical thinking.
reasonably adequately thinking, Position not
developed and developed and Position developed or
supported. supported by obscure or supported,
Appropriate use logic, under and remians
of logic, reasoning, and developed. unclear.
reasoning, and analysis, Mostly
analysis. Adequately summarization
Strongly responsive than analysis
responsive essay. is displayed.
essay.
Mechanics Well organized Organizef and Adequately Organization Disorganized
and coherent. reasoably organized and and coherent and/or
Displays a coherent. coherent. limited. incoherent,
smooth and Communicates Displays Lapses in flow and flow of
effective writer’s ideas adequate of ideas are ideas is
progression of rationally and is progression of evident. Very problematic.
ideas. Easily generally ideas and is incosistent. Poor,
understable. understandable. only generally English unintelligible
Excellent Good English understandable. language use of
English language Incosistent writing skills. English
language writing and English skills. writing skills.
writing and communication
communication skills. Good
skills. Clearly format.
excellent in
format.

V. Suggested Reading Assignments

https://www.cpha.ca/sites/default/files/assets/policy/edh-discussion_e.pdf
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infectious-diseases/symptoms-causes/syc-20351173
https://www.honeywellsmarthomes.com/blog/diseases-caused-by-air-pollution/
https://www.healthline.com/health/hepatitis
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/redtide.html
https://www.healthline.com/health/allergies
https://medlineplus.gov/sexuallytransmitteddiseases.html
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infectious-diseases/symptoms-causes/syc-20351173
https://www.healthline.com/health/disease-transmission#indirect-contact

A Self-regulated Learning Module 30

 CHAPTER 6
ECOSYSTEM

I. Introduction

Ecosystem is an array of organisms and their physical environment, all interacting through a flow of energy and
cycling of materials. Everything that affects an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment.
The space that the organism inhabits or where it lives is its habitat. Within its defined habitat, the organism fulfills an
obligatory role or niche contributory to the total ecosystem function. Those nonliving things that influence an organism
are the abiotic factors. This includes energy, matter, space and ecological processes such as climate. The biotic
factors include all forms of life with which the organism interacts.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. Define ecology, environment, habitat and niche.
2. Enumerate biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem.
3. Illustrate the flow of energy in a food web.
4. Recognize the different process that occur in the biogeochemical cycles.
5. Distinguish among producers, consumers, and decomposers.
6. Distinguish among mutualism, commensalism, predation and parasitism.

III. Lesson Proper

A. Transfer of matter and energy occur between organisms or between organisms and the physical environment
represented by a trophic structure. Energy flow between organisms occurs in food chains, in which energy from
food passes from one organism to the next in a sequence. Each level, or “link,” in a food chain is a trophic level.
(The Greek tropho means “nourishment”). Food web, on the other hand, is a complex of interconnected food chains
in an ecosystem. All food chains and webs start with the sun, the ultimate source of energy here on Earth.
Organisms can be classified based on their general nutritional habits. Producers, also called autotrophs (self-
feeders), are organisms that can manufacture their own organic compounds that they use as sources of energy
and nutrients. Most producers are green pants that make organic nutrients by transforming energy from the sun
into chemical energy through photosynthesis (photosynthetic organisms). Chemosynthetic organisms, mostly
bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide, from their environment and convert them to
organic nutrients in the absence of sunlight through the process called chemosynthesis.

Organisms that get the nutrients and energy they require by feeding either directly or indirectly on producers are
called consumers or heterotrophs (“other-feeders”). Depending on their food sources, consumers fall into four major
classes:

• Primary consumers are herbivores (plant-eaters) which feed directly and only on all or part of living plants
• Secondary consumers are primary carnivores (meat-eaters), which feed only on plant-eating animals
• Tertiary and higher-level consumers include large carnivores or omnivores (plant- and meat-eaters) that feed
on primary and secondary consumers and/or producers.

Heterotrophs that feed on detritus, or dead organic plant and animal matter, are known as detritivores. There are
two major classes of detritivores: detritus feeders and decomposers. Detritus feeders ingest fragments of dead
organisms and their cast-off parts and organic wastes. Examples are crabs, earthworms and clams. Decomposers,
on the other hand, absorb and endocytose the soluble nutrients at the cellular level. This saprophytic mode of
nutrition is carried out by bacteria and fungi.

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 Figure 6.1. Food Web

B. Biogeochemical Cycles are cyclic paths of elements and inorganic compounds that sustain life, referred to as
nutrients, from the atmosphere to the lithosphere (soil) or hydrosphere (water) into living things and then back into
these environments.

The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle (Fig. 6.2), collects, purifies and distributes the Earth’s fixed water supply. The
main processes in this water recycling and purifying cycle are: evaporation or the conversion of water to water
vapor; condensation or the conversion of water vapor to droplets of liquid water; transpiration, or the process in
which water, after being absorbed by the root system of plants and passing through their living structure, evaporates
into the atmosphere as water vapor; precipitation, such as dew, rain, sleet, hail, snow; and runoff, which is the
draining of water back to the sea to begin the cycle again.

Figure 6.2. The Hydrologic Cycle

The Carbon Cycle includes the processes and pathways involved in capturing inorganic carbon-containing
molecules, converting them into organic molecules that are used by organisms, and the ultimate release of inorganic
carbon molecule back to the abiotic environment. During photosynthesis, green plants absorb carbon dioxide from
the air and combine it with hydrogen from water absorbed from the soil. Complex organic molecules such as sugar
or carbohydrates are formed and oxygen molecules are released into the atmosphere. Consumers use these
organic molecules as food. Animal cells burn sugars in the process known as respiration, releasing carbon dioxide

A Self-regulated Learning Module 32

back to the atmosphere. Decomposers, on the other hand, use the organic molecules contained in animal waste
products and dead organisms as food. The decay process releases carbon dioxide and water back to the
environment. Buried plant and animal materials become fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) by geologic forces.
When we burn fossil fuels, the carbon reenters the active carbon cycle.

Figure 6.3. The Carbon Cycle

Phosphorus Cycle can be short term or long-term. Short term cycling of phosphorus starts when plants get
phosphorus from the soil. Consumers obtain phosphorus by eating the plants. Decomposition of dead organic
matter from producers and consumers bring back phosphorus to the soil for recycling. Long term cycle involves
leaching of phosphates into bodies of water settling into sediments, and later on incorporated into rocks as insoluble
compounds. Geologic processes elevate these deposits and expose them to erosion making them available to
organisms. Phosphorus can be released by weathering and taken up by plant roots.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 33

 Figure 6.4. The Phosphorus Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle involves the cycling of nitrogen atoms between the abiotic and biotic components and among the
organisms in an ecosystem. The nitrogen gas present in the atmosphere (constitutes about 79%) is not absorbable
by most organisms. The cycle is heavily dependent on microorganisms that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into
absorbable forms.
• Ammonifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing wastes and bodies of dead plants and animals into
ammonia (NH3) and ammonia salts.
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium) convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia.
• Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate.
• Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing bioavailable nitrogen and returning it
to the atmosphere.
• Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by using nitrite as the electron acceptor to produce gaseous nitrogen.

Figure 6.5. Nitrogen Cycle

C. Interactions Among Organisms. Individuals and populations in an ecosystem interact with each other in
different ways. These interactions describe how organisms respond to and alter their environment.

• In a neutral interaction, two populations interact, but neither would have any effect on the evolutionary
fitness of the other.
• Mutualism is a form of symbiosis in which both organisms benefit from living together.
• Commensalism is a relationship between two species whereby one (the commensal) benefits from the
association, whereas the other neither benefits nor suffers.
• Competition involves the interaction between two or more organisms (for example, species), that uses a
common resource, which is in short supply.
• Amensalism is an association between organisms of two different species in which one is inhibited or
destroyed and the other is unaffected.
• Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism,
its prey.
• Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in
another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life.

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 • Parasitodism is a form of parasitism wherein an organism (called parasitoid) lives on or inside the host at
one phase in its life cycle, and usually ends up in the death of the host.

IV. Assessment

A. Define the following terms in your own words. (5 pts each)

Ecology__________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Environment______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Habitat___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Niche____________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

A Self-regulated Learning Module 35

B. List down all the biotic and abiotic factors in the ecosystem illustrated below. (20pts)

Biotic Factors

____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
______

Abiotic Factors

____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
______

C. Make a food web with the following organisms: eagle, flower, mouse, rabbit, snake, bacteria and fungi.
Identify the producer, consumer and decomposer in the food web.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 36

D. MATCHING TYPE. Match the processes that occur during the bio-geo-chemical cycles found in Column B with the
descriptions found in Column B. Write the letter of your answer on the space provided before each number. (10pts)

Column A Column B

_____1. It is the process in which rocks are broken down A. runoff

into smaller particles physically or chemically. B. combustion
_____2. The loss or extraction of certain materials C. Acid rain
from a carrier into a liquid. D. erosion
_____3. It refers to a considerable vertical movement E. photosynthesis
of the Earth’s crust and is one of the primary F. leaching
factors in the formation of mountains. G. Geological uplift
_____4. It is an ecosystem’s response to the addition H. transpiration
of artificial or natural nutrients, mainly phosphates, I. mineralization
through detergents, fertilizers, or sewage, to an J. nitrification
aquatic ecosystem. K. eutrophication
_____5. This occurs when the vapor that condensed L. Precipitation
comes back out of the sky as rain, snow, sleet or hail. M. transpiration
_____6. The process by which water from excessive rain N. Carbon sequestration
or snowmelt moves across land. O. respiration
_____7. The pH of this rain has been lowered by the P. evaporation
presence of ions such as sulfates and nitrates. Q. condensation
_____8. The process when plants emit water vapor.
_____9. It is the main driving factor of the oxygen cycle.
_____10. It releases organic carbon very rapidly into the atmosphere.

E. Species Interaction. Using the definitions from the lesson, use the following symbols to describe the interactions
between organisms in each type of species interaction. Write your answers on the table below. The first one is done for
you as an example.
+= organism benefits
̶ = organism is harmed
0= organisms is neither benefited nor harmed

Type of Interaction Species A Species B

Neutral 0 0
Mutualism
Commensalism
Competition
Amensalism
Predation
Parasitism
Parasitoidism

A Self-regulated Learning Module 37

V. Suggested Reading Assignments

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-ecology/hs-community-ecology/a/community-
structure
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-003-1040-1
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/community-structure
https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/sectors/biogeochemical-cycles
https://blogs.ntu.edu.sg/hp331-2014-29/?page_id=110
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-nitrogen-cycle-processes-players-and-human-15644632
https://www.feedphosphates.org/index.php/guides/11-guides/16-phosphorus-and-the-environment
https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/environment-natural-resources/phosphorus-behavior-in-the-environment
https://extension.psu.edu/programs/nutrient-management/educational/soil-fertility/managing-phosphorus-for-
agriculture-and-the-environment
file:///D:/Users/Hp/Downloads/NCA3_Full_Report_15_Biogeochemical_Cycles_LowRes.pdf

A Self-regulated Learning Module 38

 CHAPTER 7
EARTH’S MAJOR BIOMES

I. Introduction

Earth has many different climates—long-term weather patterns—based primarily on temperature and precipitation
differences. Characteristic organisms have adapted to each climate within large regions called biomes. Near the
poles, temperature is generally the overriding climate factor defining a biome, whereas in temperate and tropical
regions, precipitation is more significant than temperature. Other abiotic factors that can affect biomes are fires, floods,
droughts, strong winds, and elevation. This module will be considering nine major biomes and how humans are
affecting them: tundra, boreal forest, temperate rain forest, temperate deciduous forest, temperate grassland,
chaparral, desert, savanna, and tropical rain forest.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. Identify the major terrestrial biomes associated with the different parts of the Earth.
2. Enumerate and describe the different ecosystems found in the Philippines.
3. Describe the various aquatic ecosystems, giving attention to the environmental characteristics of each.

III. Lesson Proper

a. Tundra is a treeless biome in the far north that consists of boggy plains covered by lichens and mosses; it has
harsh, cold winters and extremely short summers when rain or snow (10 to 25 cm) falls. Most tundra soils are
usually nutrient poor and have little detritus. Although the tundra’s surface soil thaws during summer, beneath it lies
a layer of permafrost, permanently frozen ground that varies in depth and thickness.

Tundra has low primary productivity and supports relatively few species compared to other biomes, but the species
that do occur there often exist in great numbers. Mosses, lichens, grasses, and grass-like sedges are the dominant
plants. Stunted trees and shrubs grow only in sheltered locations. Animals adapted to live year-round in the tundra
include lemmings, voles, weasels, arctic foxes, snowshoe hares, ptarmigan, snowy owls, and musk oxen. In
summer, caribou migrate north to the tundra to graze on sedges, grasses, and dwarf willow. Dozens of bird species
also migrate north in summer to nest and feed on abundant insects. Mosquitoes, blackflies, and deerflies survive
winter as eggs or pupae and appear in great numbers during summer weeks.

Tundra recovers slowly from even small disturbances. Oil and natural gas exploration and military use have caused
damage to tundra likely to persist for hundreds of years. Climate change is beginning to affect the arctic tundra. As
the permafrost melts, conifer trees (cone-bearing evergreens) are replacing tundra vegetation. The trees have a
lower reflectivity than snow, ice, or tundra vegetation, causing additional warming, an example of a positive
feedback mechanism.

b. Taiga is a boreal region of coniferous forest (such as pine, spruce, and fir) in the Northern Hemisphere, located just
south of the tundra. Winters in the boreal forest are extremely cold and severe, although not as harsh as those in
the tundra. Boreal forest receives little precipitation, perhaps 50 cm (20 in) per year, and its soil is typically acidic
and mineral poor, with a thick surface layer of partly decomposed pine and spruce needles.

Black and white spruces, balsam fir, eastern larch, and other conifers dominate the boreal forest, although
deciduous trees (trees that shed their leaves in autumn), such as aspen and birch, may form striking stands. The
animal life of the boreal forest consists of some larger species such as caribou, which migrate from the tundra for
winter; wolves; brown and black bears; and moose. However, most boreal mammals are medium sized to small,
including rodents, rabbits, and smaller predators such as lynx, sable, and mink. Birds are abundant in the summer
but migrate to warmer climates for winter. Insects are plentiful, but few amphibians and reptiles occur except in the
southern boreal forest.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 39

 Currently, boreal forest is the world’s top source of industrial wood and wood fiber. Extensive logging, gas and oil
exploration, mining, and farming have contributed to loss of boreal forest.

c. Temperate rain forest is a coniferous temperate rain forest occurs on the northwest coast of North America,
southeastern Australia and in southern South America. Annual precipitation in this biome is high—more than 127
cm (50 in)—and is augmented by condensation of water from dense coastal fogs. The proximity of temperate rain
forest to the coastline moderates its temperature so that the seasonal fluctuation is narrow; winters are mild, and
summers are cool. Temperate rain forest has relatively nutrient-poor soil with high organic content.

North American temperate rain forest is dominated by large evergreen trees, such as western hemlock, Douglas
fir, western red cedar, Sitka spruce, and western arborvitae, as well epiphytes, like mosses, club mosses, lichens,
and ferns that carpet the ground. Squirrels, wood rats, mule deer, elk, numerous bird species, and several species
of amphibians and reptiles are common in this biome.

The temperate rain forest is a rich wood producer, supplying lumber and pulpwood. Overharvesting the original old-
growth (never logged) forest can devastate that biome, because such an ecosystem takes hundreds of years to
develop. Once harvested, the old-growth forest ecosystem never has a chance to fully recover.

d. Temperate deciduous forest is characterized by leaf-shedding, broad-leaved hardwood trees and seasonal
climate that occurs in temperate areas where annual precipitation ranges from about 75 cm to 150 cm (30 to 60 in)
annually. Typically, the soil of a temperate deciduous forest consists of a topsoil-rich in organic material and a deep,
clay-rich lower layer.

Broadleaved hardwood trees that lose their leaves seasonally, such as oak, hickory, and beech, dominate the
temperate deciduous forests of the northeastern and mid-eastern United States. In the southern areas of the
temperate deciduous forest, the number of broad-leaved evergreen trees, such as magnolia, increases. Temperate
deciduous forests originally contained a variety of large mammals, such as puma, wolves, and bison, which are
now absent. Other more common animals include deer, bears, and many small mammals and birds.

Worldwide, deciduous forests were among the first biomes converted to agricultural use. In Europe and Asia, many
soils that originally supported deciduous forests have been cultivated by traditional agricultural methods for
thousands of years without a substantial loss in fertility. During the 20th century, widely adopted intensive
agricultural practices, along with overgrazing and deforestation, contributed to the degradation of some agricultural
lands.

e. Temperate grassland has hot summers, cold winters and uncertain rainfall (Ave. annual precipitation ranges 25-
75cm or 10-30in). Grassland soil has considerable organic material. grasses that dominate this biome are sod
formers—that is, their roots and rhizomes form a thick, continuous underground mat. Periodic wildfires help maintain
grasses as the dominant vegetation in grasslands. Most of moist temperate grasslands have vanished under the
plow and have been converted into breadbaskets of the world, because they provide ideal growing conditions for
crops such as corn and wheat, which are also grasses.

f. Chaparrals are hilly temperate environments that have mild winters with abundant rainfall combined with hot, dry
summers. Such biomes occur not only in the area around the Mediterranean Sea but also in the North American
Southwest, southwestern and southern Australia, central Chile, and southwestern South Africa.

Chaparral soil is thin and often not very fertile. Wildfires occur naturally in this environment and are particularly
frequent in late summer and autumn. A dense thicket of evergreen shrubs—often short, drought-resistant pine or
scrub oak trees that grow 1 to 3 m (3 to 10 ft) tall—usually dominates chaparral. Mule deer, wood rats, chipmunks,
lizards, and many species of birds are common animals of the chaparral.

g. Deserts are dry areas with extreme daily temperatures and very limited vegetation found in both temperate (cold
deserts) and subtropical or tropical regions (warm deserts). As a result of sparse vegetation, desert soil is low in
organic material but is often high in mineral content, particularly salts. Plants such as cacti, yuccas, Joshua trees,

A Self-regulated Learning Module 40

 and sagebrush have few, small, or no leaves to conserve water are found in deserts. Desert animals, which typically
small remain under cover during the day, emerging at night to forage or hunt.

Humans have altered deserts in several ways. People who drive across the desert in off-road vehicles inflict
environmental damage. When the top layer of desert soil is disturbed, erosion occurs more readily, and less
vegetation grows to support native animals. Certain cacti and desert tortoises are rare as a result of poaching.
Houses, factories, and farms built in desert areas require vast quantities of water, which is imported from distant
areas. Increased groundwater consumption by many desert cities has caused groundwater levels to drop.

h. Savanna, a tropical grassland with occasional trees like acacia, is found in areas of low rainfall or intense seasonal
rainfall with prolonged dry periods. Temperatures in savannas vary little throughout the year. Precipitation is the
overriding climate factor: Annual precipitation is 85 to 150 cm (34 to 60 in). Savanna soil is somewhat low in
essential nutrient minerals, in part because it is heavily leached during rainy periods—that is, nutrient minerals filter
out of the topsoil. Savanna in many places is being converted into rangeland for cattle and other domesticated
animals.

i. Tropical rainforest is a lush, species-rich forest biome that occurs where the climate is warm and moist throughout
the year and precipitation (200-450 cm or 80-180 in/yr) occurs almost daily. Tropical rain forests have highly
weathered, mineral-poor soil with little organic matter accumulates. Tropical rain forests are found in Central and
South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Of all biomes, the tropical rain forest has the highest species richness
and variety. Trees support thick woody vines and extensive communities of epiphytic plants such as ferns, mosses,
orchids, and bromeliads. Not counting bacteria and other soil-dwelling organisms, about 90 percent of tropical
rainforest organisms are adapted to live in the canopy. Rain forests shelter the most abundant and varied insects,
birds, reptiles, and amphibians on Earth. Most rainforest mammals, such as sloths and monkeys, are adapted to
live only in the trees and rarely climb down to the ground, although some large, ground- dwelling mammals, including
elephants, are also found in rain forests.
j. Aquatic ecosystems contain three main ecological categories of organisms: free-floating plankton, strongly
swimming nekton, and bottom-dwelling benthos. Planktons are usually small or microscopic organisms that tend
to drift or swim freely. Plankton include phytoplankton, photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria that form the base
of most aquatic food webs, and zooplankton, animal-like organisms that feed on algae and cyanobacteria and are
in turn consumed by newly hatched fish and other small aquatic organisms. Nektons are larger, more strongly
swimming organisms such as fishes, turtles, and whales. Benthos are bottom-dwelling organisms that fix
themselves to one spot (sponges and oysters), burrow into the sand (worms and clams), or simply walk about on
the bottom (crawfish and aquatic insect larvae).

k. Freshwater ecosystems include lakes and ponds (standing water ecosystems), rivers and streams (flowing-water
ecosystems), and marshes and swamps (freshwater wetlands). A large lake has three zones: the littoral, limnetic
and profundal zones. The littoral zone is a productive, shallow-water area along the shore of a lake or pond. The
limnetic zone is the open water beyond the littoral zone that extends down as far as sunlight penetrates to permit
photosynthesis. The deepest zone, the profundal zone, is beneath the limnetic zone of a large lake where light
does not penetrate. Human effects on lakes and ponds include eutrophication, which is nutrient enrichment of a
body of water with inorganic plant and algal nutrients like nitrates and phosphates. Runoff of agricultural fertilizers
and discharge of treated or untreated sewage accelerates this natural process.

Flowing-water ecosystems harbor different kinds of organisms, depending primarily on the strength of the current.
In streams with fast currents, some inhabitants have adaptations such as suckers, with which they attach
themselves to rocks to prevent being swept away. Some stream inhabitants have flattened bodies to slip under or
between rocks. Other inhabitants such as fish are streamlined and muscular enough to swim in the current. Human
activities such as pollution and dam construction have adverse impacts on rivers and streams.

Freshwater wetlands include marshes, dominated by grass-like plants, and swamps, dominated by woody trees
or shrubs. Wetland soils are waterlogged for variable periods and are therefore anaerobic (without oxygen) and rich
in accumulated organic materials. With their productive plant communities, wetlands provide excellent wildlife
habitat for migratory waterfowl and other bird species, as well as for beaver, otters, muskrats, and game fish.
Wetlands are threatened by pollution, development, agriculture, and dam construction.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 41

Brackish/ estuarine ecosystem are transition zones between freshwater and marine water habitats composed of
brakish water whose pH and salinity varies depending on the oceans and rivers that feed it. These are productive
ecosystems teeming with organic matter and nutrients in the sediments. Estuarine ecosystems such as mangrove
forests are natural filters for water draining from land, resulting in clearer water flowing seaward. They also act as
a natural buffer between the land and the ocean.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 42

IV. Assessments

A. Using the world map template below, identify the biomes associated with the different parts of the Earth. Assign color
for each biome and use that to shade specific parts of the Earth where the specific biome is generally found.

B. Research on the Types of Ecosystems found here in the Philippines and complete the table below:
General Type Subtype Major Features
Terrestrial Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem

Brackish/Estuarine Ecosystem

Saltwater/Marine Ecosystem

Special Ecosystem

A Self-regulated Learning Module 43

C. Essay. Answer the following questions extensively focusing on the characteristics as well as the organisms found in
each aquatic ecosystem. (10 pts per number).

1. What environmental factors shape flowing-water ecosystems? standing-water ecosystems?

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

2. How do the characteristics of a freshwater wetland differ from those of an estuary?

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

3. How does a mangrove swamp differ from a salt marsh?

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

Rubrics for the Essay

10 8 6 4 2
Answers show Answers show Answers Answers do not Answers do not
mastery of content and some show some show understanding address the
deeper analysis. Student’s understanding of basic questions. Answers
analysis/understanding answer shows of essential content. Answers are not on prompt
of the content. Give mastery and content, facts, are incomplete or or track.
specific characteristic understanding of but is lacking inaccurate. Answers
of each type of content. in greater show that mastery of
ecosystem. analysis and the general content
evidence. is missing.

V. Suggested Reading Assignments

https://steemit.com/nature/@lapilipinas/natural-ecosystems-in-the-philippines
https://fpe.ph/biodiversity.html/view/the-lay-of-the-land-ecosystem-diversity-in-the-philippines
http://www.fusd1.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=9742&dataid=19914&FileName=2.6%20Su
mmary%20of%20the%20%20Worlds%20Major%20Terrestrial%20Biomes.pdf
http://www.fusd1.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=9742&dataid=19914&FileName=2.6%20Su
mmary%20of%20the%20%20Worlds%20Major%20Terrestrial%20Biomes.pdf

A Self-regulated Learning Module 44

 CHAPTER 8
POPULATION ECOLOGY

I. Introduction
The world population, or the total number of humans currently living, as estimated by the United Nation to have
reached 7.8 billion this 2020. Human population and its impact pose a major problem for the planet. To survive, humans
needs to consume materials and space. We occupy land to reside in, to grow food, to dump wastes. As it stands with the
population explosion, there is no end in sight for humans’ voracious consumption of natural resources. The demands of the
human population have dealt the environment destructive blows and the natural calamities we are now experiencing is a
reminder of the environment’s needs to be attended to. In this module, we explore population ecology as a means to
understand the influence of populations to the environment.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. Discuss how environment influences population.
2. Differentiate the two life-history patterns.
3. Apprehend how the different revolutions have affected global human populations.

III. Lesson Proper

A. Population ecology is the study of populations and their interactions with their environment. The environment
influences population in terms of its density and distribution, age structure and size. The environment also imposes
a limit on populations in that no population can continue to grow indefinitely in a finite amount of natural resources.
Population ecology gives an insight into the factors affecting fluctuations of populations in the context of
environmental supporting capacity.
Population is a group of individuals that are members of a single species living together in the same area and are
likely to interbreed. Population density refers to the number of individuals per unit area or volume and accounts
for the increase in population through birth and immigration, and the decrease in population through death and
emigration. A population grows when the birth rate exceeds the death rate and declines when the death rate
exceeds the birth rate.
B. Factors Affecting Population Dynamics
a. Resource abundance is the availability and abundance of environmental resources like food, water and space.
b. Life-history patterns includes reproductive patterns. The r-selection or rapid life-history pattern is a strategy
common to species that have small body size, reproduce early, highly mobile and have short life span such as
mosquitoes. K-selection, on the other hand, is a strategy common to larger animals such as mammals, that
have long lifespan, reproduce later in life and produce few offspring.
c. Environmental conditions such as seasons and climatic conditions and availability of water and light.
d. Organism interactions in a community are the main limiting factor in keeping population sizes below the
environmental capacity.
C. World Population Milestones
a. Neolithic Revolution, about 11,500 to 5,000 years ago, saw the development of technology needed to plant and
harvest crops and to domesticate animals. This advent of agriculture provided a means for obtaining more
abundant and reliable food supply, thus, supported population growth.
b. Industrial revolution unfolded as man harness fossil fuels in the form of coal, oil and natural gas, as a source of
energy that had high capacity for work. Supply of food, raw materials and processed materials were improved,
as well as trade and transportation. The booming economy supported by a surplus in energy in turn supported
the growth of human population. The effect of industrialization was staggering, initially turning a population of a
half million to a billion in a span of 200 years.
c. Medical revolution (1800s), brought about by the discovery of the causes of infections and how these were
transmitted, resulted in massive changes in treating illnesses and vast improvements in public sanitation and
personal hygiene. This have liberated the human population from the perils of infectious diseases while enjoying
a high birth rate – thereby contributing to the exponential rise of population during this time.
d. Green revolution sought to increase the production and efficiency of agricultural systems worldwide through the
development of new technologies, as a solution for worldwide starvation.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 45

 e. Environmental revolution, which is what we are in now, is a proactively switching from unsustainable practices
to efficient and clean “green” technology. These practices include shifting to environmentally sustainable sources
of energy, new methods of farming and agriculture, energy-efficient technologies as well as better urban and
regional planning and policy changes.

IV. Assessment.
A. Write an essay discussing how technological, economic and social factors can cause levels of mortality and
fertility to change.
Rubrics on Short Essay
Advanced Proficient Approaching Developing Comments
(20) (16) Proficiency (8) and
(12) Suggestions
Clarity of Developed Developed Developed the Developed the
thought the ideas the ideas ideas and ideas
effectively effectively supported by unevenly and
and efficiently and valid detail lacked
and supported by supporting
supported by valid detail details
valid detail

Grammar, Did not have Has 1 error in Has 2 errors in Has 3 errors in
spelling and errors in grammar, grammar, grammar,
punctuation grammar, spelling and spelling and spelling and
spelling and punctuation punctuation punctuation
punctuation

(10) (8) (6) (4)

Punctuality Submitted on Submitted a Submitted 2 Submitted 3 or
or before the day after the days after the more days
due date due date due date after the due
date

TOTAL

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________

B. Identify the life patterns of each of the following organisms by checking whether the organism is an r-selected or K-
selected species.

Organism r-Selected Species K-Selected Species

Bald eagle
Mouse
Bacteria
Grasses
Whales
Parrots

A Self-regulated Learning Module 46

 Diatoms
Grasshopper
Rabbits
Elephants

C. Detect whether there has been an increase or decrease (trend) in human population during the different revolutions
and give the reason why there was such increase or decrease. Summarize your answers on the table below. (20 pts)

Period Population Trend Reason

Neolithic Revolution

Industrial revolution

Medical revolution (1800s)

Green revolution

Environmental revolution

V. Suggested Reading Assignments

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25900148/
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ele.12437
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.1916
https://ecologyandevolution.cornell.edu/environmental-change-biodiversity

CHAPTER 9

AIR AND AIR POLLUTION

I. Introduction
The Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases made up of about 78% nitrogen (N 2), 21% oxygen (O2), and 1% argon
(Ar), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O) and trace amounts of other gases. Oxygen is primarily
important for respiration of humans and animals. Carbon dioxide, although present in a very small concentration (0.039%),
is necessary for the photosynthesis of plants. Nitrogen is a major component of proteins, and thus, is also essential for life.
Air pollution causes many health and environmental problems. Around the world, the air we breathe can be contaminated
with a variety of pollutants. In this module, air pollution and its causes and effects are tackled.

A Self-regulated Learning Module 47

II. Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. Describe the different layers of the atmosphere.
2. Characterize the troposphere and list down the gases found in this layer.
3. Relate, in general terms, the adverse health effects of air pollutants.
4. Define air pollution and distinguish between primary and secondary air pollutants.
5. List the major classes of air pollutants and describe their characteristics and sources.

III. Lesson Proper

Layers of the atmosphere

Source: Smithsonian Research Center

Air Pollution
Air pollution is a condition in which the quality of air is degraded due to the presence of harmful
substances, particulate matter, and biological agents. There are many point and non-point sources of air pollution. Point
sources are those which are readily identified and are stationary such as factory smokestacks. Nonpoint sources are not
easily identified as they are diffused and may not be constantly emitting pollutants like cars. The degree of air pollution in
an area depends on several factors such as source of pollution, rate of emission, wind and the topography or location.

Types of Air Pollutants

Primary pollutants are substances released directly into the air by point and nonpoint sources. These pollutants
include carbon monoxide (smokestacks of factories or tailpipes of vehicles), sulfur dioxide (volcanic emissions), oxides of
nitrogen (NO, NO2), vapor of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds, particulate matter such as smoke and dust,

A Self-regulated Learning Module 48

oxides of lead, cadmium, copper and iron, toxic substances like chlorine gas, hydrogen sulfide, and foul odors produced
from the decay of garbage and other things.
Secondary pollutants are those formed from the chemical reactions of primary pollutants and other substances.
They may be more harmful than primary pollutants. For example, sulfuric acid, H 2SO4, which is a very corrosive acid that
can make rainwater acidic, forms from chemical reactions involving sulfur dioxide, SO 2. Ozone, O3, may be formed from the
breakdown of NO2 by sunlight.
Outdoor Air Pollutants
The following are the common causes of outdoor air pollution:
• Combustion of fossil fuels to produce electricity in power plants and to run vehicles, release soot and carbon,
sulfur and nitrogen oxides, as well as impurities such as lead, calcium, aluminum, nickel, zinc, silicon, copper,
mercury, arsenic and even uranium.
• Airborne pathogens or disease-causing agents such as virus that can cause common cold, influenza, chicken
pox or even SARS coronavirus.
• Particulate matter is a group of pollutants made up of very small solid or liquid droplets that remain suspended
in air.
• Photochemical smog is formed from chemical reactions which are triggered by sunlight. The main component
is ozone which is a very reactive pollutant that can harm the respiratory system.
• Ozone depletion or destruction caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• Acid deposition or acid rain is harmful to plants, animals, humans and even to infrastructures. Acid could
remove important nutrients from soil and destroy plant life. Buildings and historical monuments are being
corroded through acid deposition.

Health Effects of Some Major Air Pollutants

Pollutant Source Effects
Particulate matter Industries, motor Aggravates respiratory illnesses; long-term exposure may
vehicles cause chronic conditions such as bronchitis
Sulfur oxides Electric power plants, Irritate respiratory tract; same effects as particulates
industries
Nitrogen oxides Motor vehicles, Irritate respiratory tract, aggravate respiratory conditions
industries, heavily such as asthma and chronic bronchitis
fertilized farmland
Carbon monoxide Motor vehicles, Reduces blood’s ability to transport oxygen; causes
industries headache and fatigue at low levels; mental impairment of
death at high levels
Ozone Formed in atmosphere Irritates eyes; irritates respiratory tract; produces chest
(secondary air pollutant) discomfort; aggravates respiratory conditions such as
asthma and chronic bronchitis
Controlling Air Pollutants

• Use of technologies such as electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and scrubbers installed in smokestacks.
• Careful land-excavating activities
• Measures to increase energy efficiency
o Use of smaller or compact cars
o Installation of catalytic converters to automobiles
o Modification of furnaces and engines to provide more complete combustion
• Careful handling of petroleum products
• Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, is a comprehensive air quality management
policy and program which aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for all Filipinos.
Indoor Air Pollution

Air Pollutant Description Health Risks

Dust mite A tiny insect feeds on skin Triggers allergic reactions such
shedding as allergic rhinitis

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 Environmental tobacco smoke Sidestream and mainstream Increases risk of lung cancer,
smoke from burning tobacco respiratory diseases and
and cigarette cardiovascular diseases
Volatile organic compounds Hydrocarbons and organic Cause headache, breathing
(VOCs) compounds used as solvents, problems and respiratory
fuel and insecticides; evaporate diseases; can be carcinogenic;
fast and can be inhaled easily. fire hazards
Examples are acetone, alcohol,
methane and propane
Combustion products Soot, carbon monoxide, carbon Soot could cause lung problems
dioxide because it absorbs on its
surface more hazardous
particulates. Inhaling too much
CO and CO2 could lead to
asphyxiation because of greater
affinity of heme with those
chemicals than with oxygen.
Chlorinated chemicals Sodium hypochlorite, a Carcinogens. Methylene
bleaching agent with wide chloride used in paint strippers
applications; carbon and thinners causes nerve
tetrachloride, chloroform, disorders.
methylene chloride and
tetrachloroethylene are organic
solvents; paradichlorobenzene
in mothballs
Asbestos Used as fire retardant in Causes asbestosis, a lung
flooring, ceiling and wall disease in which asbestos fibers
materials; no longer used become embedded in the lungs.
presently but may still be found
in old houses or buildings

IV. Assessment.
A. Label the different layers of the atmosphere. Characterize each layer focusing on the altitude, temperature, distinguishing
characteristics and the gases found in the different layers (if there are). (30pts)

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B. Use a Graphic Organizer to show the Primary and Secondary Pollutant and their sources.

Rubrics

Criteria 10 8 6 4 Score

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 Organization Ideas are Ideas Some ideas Most ideas
and coherence presented with presented are presented are presented are
total coherence mostly confusing not clear and
and cohesion coherent incoherent
Accuracy of Ideas are Ideas Ideas Ideas
information presented presented have presented have presented have
accurately and few missing some missing many missing
appropriately data data data
Pictures/ Ideas/ Ideas/ Ideas/ Ideas/
illustrations and illustrations/ illustrations/ illustrations/ illustrations/
Creativity pictures are pictures are pictures show pictures show
highly effective combined in an some little
imaginative imaginative imaginative
way touches touches
Completeness All necessary Many Some Very few
data are necessary data necessary data necessary data
presented are presented are presented are presented
Punctuality Submitted on or Submitted a Submitted 2 Submitted 3 or
before the due day after the days after the more days after
date due date due date the due date

TOTAL

V. Suggested Reading Assignments

https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/air-pollution-and-climate-change-two-sides-same-coin
https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/air-pollution-and-climate-change-two-sides-same-coin
https://www.activesustainability.com/climate-change/link-between-climate-change-air-pollution/
https://www.climatecentral.org/news/climate-change-is-threatening-air-quality-across-the-country-2019
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/pollution/
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/air-pollution/
https://public.wmo.int/en/bulletin/implications-climate-change-air-quality

A Self-regulated Learning Module 52

 CHAPTER 10
GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CHANGES

I. Introduction
Powerful evidence that Earth is warming comes from the melting of continental and polar ice. In the last 22 years, the
Denman Glacier, in East Antarctica, has retreated almost three miles. If it fully thaws, sea levels would rise almost 5 feet
(CNN). Human-caused climate change is an established phenomenon. The biggest culprit in climate change is an increase
in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is generated primarily through the burning of fossil fuels. In this module, the challenges
of global atmospheric changes: climate change, ozone depletion, and acid deposition are tackled.
II. Objectives of the Lesson

At the end of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. Distinguish between weather and climate.
2. Explain what determines the Earth’s climate.
3. List the main greenhouse gases.
4. Describe the enhanced greenhouse effect.
5. Discuss the potential effects of global warming.
6. Give examples of strategies to mitigate or adapt to global climate change.
7. Describe the importance of the ozone layer.

III. Lesson Proper

Weather vs. Climate

Weather refers to the conditions in the atmosphere at a given place and time; it includes temperature, atmospheric
pressure, precipitation, cloudiness, humidity and wind. Weather changes from one hours to the next and from one day to
the next. Earth’s overall climate is determined by several factors: the sun’s intensity, Earth’s distance from the sun, tilt of
the Earth relative to its rotational axis, distribution of water and landmasses across Earth’s surface and composition of gases
in the atmosphere. Across Earth, the two most important factors that define an area’s overall climate are temperature and
precipitation. Latitude, elevation, distance from the ocean, and geographic location all influence climate. Other climate
factors include weather conditions such as wind, humidity, fog, cloud cover, and, in some areas, lightning.
Global Climate Change
Solar energy, the biogeochemical cycles and gravity are the three key factors that sustain life on Earth. Sunlight
provides the energy for photosynthesis which produces food for humans and animals. Biological, geological and chemical
processes allow the cycling of matter to continue. Gravity holds most matter in the troposphere.
Solar energy comes from the sun. The absorption and emission of energy from the Earth’s surface is important to
keep the heat balance. The greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, absorb some the infrared (IR) light, the form of
energy emitted by the earth’s surface back to the atmosphere.
Major Greenhouse Gases
1. water vapor
2. carbon dioxide
3. methane
4. nitrous oxide
5. ozone
6. CFCs and other halocarbons
In the atmosphere, more GHGs cause a condition called the enhanced greenhouse effect better known as global
warming, wherein there is an increase of the Earth’s average surface temperature. The drastic increase of greenhouse
gases is attributed to anthropogenic activities. The possible factors include:
• Lessening of carbon sinks due to deforestation and agriculture
• Excessive combustion of fossil fuels
• Generation of halocarbons in the atmosphere
• Excessive demand for products by growing human population.
Effects of Climate Change

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 • Health effects
• Loss of natural resources
• Indirect threats to life and property
• Changes in natural habitats and food supply
• Changing ocean chemistry/acidification
Adaptation and Mitigation Responses to Climate Change
The basic ways to manage global climate change are mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation is the moderation or
postponement of global climate change through measures that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Adaptation is a planned
response to changes caused by global climate change. The extent and severity of climate change will depend on the amount
of additional greenhouse gas emissions we add to the atmosphere. The rate of increase of atmospheric GHGs from fossil
fuels depends on such factors as economic conditions, policy choices, population growth and technology changes.

Mitigation of Climate Change

• Reducing energy use, for example, driving less
• Increasing efficiency, for example, by switching to hybrid cars
• Policies such as energy-pricing strategies (carbon taxes) and elimination of energy subsidies
• Planting and maintaining forests
• Carbon management – ways to separate and capture the CO2 produced during the combustion of fossil fuels and
then sequester (store) it.
• Use of technological innovations that efficiently trap CO2 from smokestacks
• Increasing efficiency of coal-fired power plants
• Replacing coal-fired power plants with renewable energy sources
• Insulating buildings to reduce the need for heating in the winter and cooling in the summer
• Improving management of agricultural soils.
Adaptation of Climate Change

• to protect coastal land from the rising sea level

o Construction of massive sea walls
o People living in coastal areas could move inland
o Rivers and canals could be channeled to prevent salt water intrusion
• Adapt to shifting agricultural zones
Ozone Layer Depletion
The ozone layer is a thin, protective layer of ozone gas (O3) in the atmosphere, encircling at 13-20km above the
Earth. The ozone layer screens out 99% of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The fragile shield is created as ozone
molecules form and break down in the atmosphere. Thinning of the ozone layer will substantially increase the amount of
UV radiation received by Earth.
The depletion of the ozone layer is caused by chemicals, mainly by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other
halogenated ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These chemicals do not destroy
ozone directly, rather, they persist in the atmosphere where they eventually undergo photolysis, splitting to form hydrogen
chloride (HCl) or chlorine nitrate (ClNO3). These secondary molecules slowly decompose into free chlorine (Cl) or chlorine
monoxide (ClO) molecules that serve as catalysts for the breaking up of the O 3 molecules. Free bromine is about 10 to 100
times more destructive than free chlorine. Another downside is that these catalysts are not consumed and therefore they
can persist in the atmosphere for a long time and can destroy hundred and thousands of O 3.
The destruction of ozone molecules leads to thinning of ozone layer, and mass depletion of it results in the formation
of an ozone hole. In the early 1980’s, an ozone hole has been discovered over the Antarctic area by Joe Farman, a British
Antarctic survey scientist while a similar hole, but not as damaging has been seen over the Arctic region. The Antarctic hole
has been getting larger over time. Within three months, the ozone hole usually breaks down and air with normal levels of
ozone molecules fills it in. As air sweeps in, the ozone-depleted air from the hole drifts over to Australia. This exposure to
UV-B radiation because of the ozone hole has led to Australia having the highest incidence rates for skin cancer. The United
Nations Environment Program predicts a rate of 10% ozone loss per year over several decades.

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 At the global level, the alarming rate of ozone depletion has prompted governments of developed and less-
developed countries to draw up an agreement, known as the Montreal Protocol that binds signatory countries to take
immediate and stringent steps towards the phasing out of ozone depleting substances.
IV. Assessment. Answer the following questions.
a. What is the difference between climate change and global warming? (10pts)
b. Which greenhouse gas is the most destructive? Why? (10pts)
c. How do we expect climate to evolve in the future? (10pts)
d. What are the impacts of climate change? (10pts)
e. Explain the concept of ozone depletion. (10pts)
V. Suggested Reading Assignments

https://www.tomorrowsworld.org/magazines/2007/march-april/the-earth-strikes-
back?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIpZuJlJHP6QIVAa6WCh0bBg8tEAAYAyAAEgJLZvD_BwE

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 CHAPTER 11
FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND WATER POLLUTION
About three-fourths of Earth’s surface is covered with water but less than 1 %is available for human use (see the
arrow in the image below). Around the world, about 1.1 billion people live without adequate access to water—many have
fewer than 10 L (about 2.6 gal) of clean water per day.

In some parts of the world, water is so scarce that inhabitants pay 5 to 10 times as much for water as those in their
wealthier neighborhood. While in some places, the poor spend as much as 20% of their income on water. In developed
nations, complex systems are in place to make water available: utility companies purchase, transport, clean, and distribute
water. The total cost might be large, but coordination makes the cost per person relatively low for a reliable water supply.
Contrast this with the slums of Lagos for example, where there is little money to develop and maintain infrastructure, so
water from pipes is sporadic, and it might be contaminated. Water might be purchased from a vendor, but supplies and
prices are unpredictable, and the quality of the water is unknown. Boiling the water to kill off biological contaminants requires
energy, which is also in limited supply.

Water Distribution on Earth

I. INTRODUCTION
Our body is composed of approximately 70% water by body weight and our cells are 90% water called cytosol. We
depend on water for our survival as well as for our convenience: We cool ourselves with it when feeling hot, cook with it,
wash with it and use an enormous amount of it for watering plants, manufacturing materials, mining, energy production, and
waste disposal. In fact, we even travel on it. Life on planet Earth would be impossible without water.

Although Earth has plenty of water, about 97 percent of it is salty and not consumable by most terrestrial organisms.
Fresh water is distributed unevenly, resulting in serious regional water supply problems and conflicts. Water experts predict
that by 2025, more than one-third of the human population will live in areas where there isn’t enough fresh water for drinking
and irrigation.

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 II. Objectives
1. Describe the structure of a water molecule and explain how hydrogen bonds form between adjacent
water molecules.
2. List the unique properties of water.
3. Explain how processes of the hydrologic cycle allow water to circulate through the abiotic
environment.
4. Relate some of the problems caused by aquifer depletion, overdrawing of surface waters, and
salinization of irrigated soil.
5. Define sustainable water use.
6. Give examples of water conservation in agriculture, industry, and individual homes and buildings.

III. Activity (10 points)

1. Describe the properties of water by completing the table below:

Category Property
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical composition
Polarity
Bonding
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Boiling point
Melting point
Freezing point
pH

In addition, water absorbs a great deal of solar heat without substantially increasing in temperature. This high heat
capacity allows the ocean to have a moderating influence on climate, particularly along coastal areas; the ocean does not
experience the wide temperature fluctuations common on land.

Water is a solvent, meaning that it can dissolve many materials. In nature, water is never completely pure because
it contains dissolved gases from the atmosphere and dissolved mineral salts from the land. However, water’s dissolving
property may cause environmental issues because substances dissolve and are transported in water causing water
pollution.

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Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle has 2 important components. These are precipitation and evaporation.

Activity 2. (25 points) See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.

1. Define the following terms

a. Surface water:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
b. Runoff:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
c. Groundwater:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
d. Unconfined aquifer:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
e. Water table:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
f. Confined aquifer:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
g. Confined aquifer recharge area:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Make a simple illustration of the 2 components of the hydrologic cycle, including the terms mentioned above on a
short bond paper.

Water Resource Problems

1. Too much water

- flooding occurs when a river’s discharge cannot be contained within its normal channel
o construction of buildings on floodplains (area bordering a river channel that has the potential
to flood)
o removing water-absorbing plant cover from the soil
2. Too little water
- Arid lands, or deserts, are fragile ecosystems in which plant growth is limited by lack of precipitation
- Semiarid lands receive more precipitation than deserts but are subject to frequent and prolonged
droughts

3. Poor quality water

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 - change of domestic and industrial effluent wastes, leakage from water tanks, marine dumping,
radioactive waste and atmospheric deposition are major causes of water pollution. Heavy metals that
disposed off and industrial waste can accumulate in lakes and rivers, proving harmful to humans and
animals

When a natural area—that is, an area undisturbed by humans—is inundated with heavy precipitation, the plant-
protected soil absorbs much of the excess water. What the soil cannot absorb runs off into the river, which may then spill
over its banks onto the floodplain. Because rivers meander, the flow is slowed, and the swollen waters rarely cause
significant damage to the surrounding area.

Farmers increase the agricultural productivity of arid and semiarid lands with irrigation. Irrigation of these lands has
become increasingly important worldwide in efforts to produce enough food for growing populations.

Population growth in arid and semiarid regions intensifies water shortage. More people need food, so additional
water resources are diverted for irrigation. Also, the immediate need for food prompts people to remove natural plant cover
to grow crops on marginal lands subject to frequent drought, which in turn reduces water absorption into soils when rains
do come.

When it comes to drinking water today, more people in developing countries depend on bottled water than on tap
water, while during early 70's to 80’s your parents and grandparents used to drink river, well, and rain harvest water.

Activity 3. Hanging Times (30 points). See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.

1. Differentiate pictures a and b. Explain their differences and its consequences.

2. Write your answer on a whole sheet of paper.

Aquifer Depletion

- happens when humans remove more groundwater than can be recharged

- lowers the water table, the upper surface of the saturated zone of groundwater
- drains an aquifer dry, effectively eliminating it as a water resource
- causes subsidence, or sinking, of the land above it

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Saltwater intrusion

- occurs along coastal areas when groundwater is depleted faster than it recharges
- also occurs in low-lying areas due to sea-level rise associated with global climate change
- water from wells in such areas eventually becomes too salty for human consumption or other freshwater uses.
Overdrawing of Surface Waters

- removal of too much fresh water from a river or lake as growing human populations place demands on water
sources that are not sustainable.
- when surface waters are overdrawn, wetlands dry up
- Estuaries, where rivers empty into seawater, become saltier and reduces their productivity
- wetlands and estuaries, which serve as breeding grounds for many species of birds and other animals, also
play a vital role in the hydrologic cycle
Salinization of Irrigated Soil

- irrigation improves the agricultural productivity of arid and semiarid lands, it often causes salt to accumulate in
the soil
- irrigation water contains small amounts of dissolved salts
- through precipitation runoff, rivers carry away salt and there is gradual accumulation of salt in the soil
Water Sources in the Philippines

There are 421 principal river basins in 119 proclaimed watersheds. Of these, 18 are considered major river basins.
These are sources of municipal and domestic water supply, irrigation, and power generation. Cagayan River Basin in
Cagayan Valley is the largest with a drainage area of 25,649 km2.

Locally, Balili River is a river in the province of Benguet. With a length of 23.81 kilometres, it traverses the city of
Baguio, and the municipalities of La Trinidad and Sablan before entering the province of La Union, where it is named the
Naguilian River

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 The river suffers from excessive pollution, usually blamed upon the densely populated city of Baguio, where its
headwaters are formed.] A study by the City Environment and Parks Management Office (CEPMO) of Baguio City shows
that half of the city's population live within the Balili watershed area, contributing the most waste. The Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) revealed that the quality of the Balili River water test result falls under Class
C from its water classification of Class A in 1975, which made its waters fit for drinking after treatment. In 2014, the water
test result from Balili River is still within the classification of Class C freshwater, but then, the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources cannot re-classify a river downgrading its classification from "Class A" to "Class C". The river was
included in the DENR's 2003 Pollution Report as one of the 15 "biologically dead" rivers among the 94 principal river basins
in the country.

Water Management

The main goal of water management is to provide a sustainable supply of high-quality water.

Sustainable water use means careful human use of water resources so that water is available for future generations and
for existing nonhuman needs. Economic policies are important in managing water sustainably. When water is inexpensive,
it tends to be wasted. Raising the price of water to reflect the actual cost generally promotes its more efficient use.

Water supplies are obtained by the following:

- building dams
- diverting water
- removing salt from seawater or salty groundwater, through a process called desalinization

Conservation of water includes:

- reusing water
- recycling water
- improving water-use efficiency

Dams and Reservoirs

Dams generate electricity and ensure a year-round supply of water often for populations that have outgrown other
water sources, but many people think their disadvantages outweigh their benefits. In recent years scientists have come to
understand how dams alter river ecosystems. Heavy sediment deposition can occur in the reservoir behind a dam, and the
water that passes over a dam does not have its normal sediment load. As a result, the river floor downstream of a dam is
scoured, producing a deep-cut channel that is a poor habitat for aquatic organisms.

Water Conservation

Today there is more competition than ever before among water users with different priorities and water conservation
measures are necessary to guarantee sufficient water supplies.

1. Reducing Agricultural Water Waste

- irrigation generally makes inefficient use of water. Traditional irrigation methods involve flooding the
land or diverting water to fields through open channels
- plants absorb only about 40% of the water that flood irrigation supplies to the soil; the rest of the water
usually evaporates into the atmosphere, seeps into the ground, or leaves the fields as runoff
transporting sediment
- microirrigation, also called drip or trickle irrigation, in which pipes with tiny holes bored in them
convey water directly to individual plants

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 2. Reducing Municipal Water Waste
- recycle or reuse water to reduce consumption
- Gray water is water that has already been used in sinks, showers, washing machines, and
dishwashers. Gray water is recycled to flush toilets, wash cars, or sprinkle lawns. In contrast to water
recycling, wastewater reuse occurs when water is collected and treated before being redistributed.
- cities also decrease water consumption by providing consumer education, requiring water-saving
household fixtures, developing economic incentives to save water, and repairing leaky water supply
systems. Also, increasing the price of water to approach its true cost promotes water conservation

3. Reducing Water Waste in Industry

- electric power generators and many industrial processes require water
- stricter pollution-control laws provide some incentive for industries to conserve water
- recapture, purify, and reuse water to reduce their water use and their water treatment costs

Activity 4. Water Conservation Efforts of the City (10 points). See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter. Use a
separate sheet of paper for this activity.

1. Enumerate 10 programs that support water conservation efforts in Baguio City or its neighboring towns. Support
your answer with pictures if you can.

Water pollution

Water pollution is a physical, biological, or chemical change in water that adversely affects the health of humans
and other organisms. It is a global problem that varies in magnitude and type of pollutant from one region to another. In
many locations, particularly in developing countries, the main water pollution issue is providing individuals with disease-free
drinking water. The table below shows a summary of types of pollution its sources and adverse effects.

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Purification of Drinking Water

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Wastewater usually undergoes several treatments at a sewage treatment plant.

1. Primary treatment removes suspended and floating particles from wastewater by mechanical processes.
2. Secondary treatment reduces water’s biochemical oxygen demand, treats wastewater biologically to decompose
suspended organic material.
3. Tertiary treatment reduces pollutants such as phosphorus and nitrogen.

In general, water is purified in these processes:

- chemical coagulant traps suspended particles

- filtration removes suspended materials and microorganisms
- disinfection kills disease-causing agents

IV. Assessment

Identification (10 points)

1. This is the percentage of water that can only be utilized by man for use. ____________________
2. This is the polarity exhibited by water. _________________________________
3. It is the draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the surface of an area of land, a building or structure
and others. _____________________________________
4. These are those into which water seeps from the ground surface directly above the aquifer.
__________________________________
5. This is a generally flat area of land next to a river or stream that has the potential to flood. It stretches from the
banks of the river to the outer edges of the valley. _________________________________
6. This is the sudden sinking or gradual downward settling of the ground's surface with little or no horizontal motion.
___________________________________
7. This is where rivers empty into seawater. ______________________________________
8. This is the largest river in the Philippines. ______________________________________
9. This water is that which has already been used in sinks, showers, washing machines, and dishwashers and is re-
used to conserve water. _______________________________________
10. This is also known as domestic/municipal wastewater since it is produced by a community of people.
____________________________________

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 V. Rubrics
Activity 2. Definition of Terms

Poor Fair Good

1 pts 2 pts 3 pts

Vocabulary Definition The definition of the A definition of the vocabulary The correct definition is used, and
vocabulary word is not word is incomplete. is complete.
included on the page or the
wrong definition is written.

Activity 3

Unsatisfactory Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding

3 pts 5 pts 7 pts 10 pts

Content & -Content is incomplete. - Content is not - Content is accurate - Content is

Development - Major points are not comprehensive and /or and persuasive. comprehensive,
clear. persuasive. - Major points are accurate, and
-Specific examples are - Major points are stated. persuasive.
not used. addressed, but not well - Responses are - Major points are stated
supported. adequate and address clearly and are well
- Responses are topic. supported.
inadequate or do not - Content is clear. - Responses are
address topic. -Specific examples are excellent, timely and
-Specific examples do used. address topic.
not support topic. - Content is clear.
-Specific examples are
used.

Organization & - Organization and - Structure of the paper - Structure is mostly -Structure of the paper is
Structure structure detract from is not easy to follow. clear and easy to clear and easy to follow.
the message. - Transitions need follow. - Transitions are logical
- Writing is disjointed improvement. - Transitions are and maintain the flow of
and lacks transition of - Conclusion is present. thought throughout the
thoughts. missing, or if provided, - Conclusion is logical. paper.
does not flow from the - Conclusion is logical
body of the paper. and flows from the body
of the paper.

Grammar, Punctuation - Paper contains - Paper contains few - Rules of grammar, - Rules of grammar,
& Spelling numerous grammatical, usage, and usage, and punctuation
grammatical, punctuation and punctuation are are followed; spelling is
punctuation, and spelling errors. followed with minor correct.
spelling errors. errors.
Spelling is correct.

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Activity 4

Unsatisfactory Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding

3 pts 5 pts 7 pts 10 pts

Content & -Content is incomplete. - Content is not - Content is accurate - Content is

Development - Major points are not comprehensive and /or and persuasive. comprehensive,
clear. persuasive. - Major points are accurate, and
-Specific examples are - Major points are stated. persuasive.
not used. addressed, but not well - Responses are - Major points are
supported. adequate and address stated clearly and are
- Responses are topic. well supported.
inadequate or do not - Content is clear. - Responses are
address topic. -Specific examples are excellent, timely and
-Specific examples do used. address topic.
not support topic. - Content is clear.
-Specific examples are
used.

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 CHAPTER 12
The Ocean and Fisheries

Our country being an island uses fishes as a natural resource for income and food. Many Filipinos work as fishermen
all the way from the waters of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. General Santos City is known as the Tuna Capital and
Dagupan City as the “bangus” Capital. We also take pride of our “danggit” from Cebu.

Indeed the ocean provides vast amounts of fishes to sustain man’s lives. However, the ocean can only provide as
much. It needs to recuperate in order for it to continually provide one of man’s source of protein.

One of man’s abuses is overfishing. This means harvesting fishes faster than they can reproduce. Reports of
overfishing in the Mediterranean for Bluefin tuna were documented and conservation efforts have been in place since 2011
to regulate the Bluefin tuna’s dwindling number. Worldwide, it is estimated that more than 80% of fish species have been
overfished. In the US alone, fish stock is depleted by 95% because of increasing demand.

Ecologists and economists estimate that if overfishing and ocean pollution is not remedied, all populations of harvested
fishes could collapse by 2048.

A. Patterns of Circulation in the Ocean

I. Introduction

Water in the ocean dominates Earth, it covers about ¾ of the Earth’s surface. This is home to many animals from
giants like whales and little ones like planktons. The ocean is essential to Earth’s hydrologic cycle which provides us with
water and also influences climate and weather.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

1. Describe the global ocean and its significance to life on earth

2. Discuss the roles of the winds and the Coriolis effect in producing global water flow patterns including gyres
3. Define El Niño and La Niña and describe some of their effects

III. Activity 1 (30 points)

Materials needed

1. 12 inches diameter round paper

2. Pin
3. Ruler
4. Pen
5. Scotch tape

Procedures
1. Pin the center of a round paper on a flat wooden surface
2. Place the ruler across the paper
3. Put a tape at the ends of the ruler so that it won’t move but allow the paper to be able to rotate
4. Have someone rotate the paper
5. With a pen, draw a line along the edge of the ruler while the paper is rotating

Your set up should look like this.

spin direction

pin

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 write here ruler

round paper

1. Did the marking make a straight line? Yes ____ No ____

2. If “No”, why did it not make a straight line?
_____________________________________________________________________

3. What phenomenon would explain the result of your activity? _____________________

IV. Lesson Proper

Gyres are large, circular ocean current systems that often encompass an entire ocean basin. These are generated
by persistent prevailing winds blowing over the ocean. The picture below shows the basic pattern of ocean currents. Have
some time to observe the difference of the pattern of movement in the Northern hemisphere as compared to the Southern
Hemisphere.

If you were able to see the clockwise pattern in the Northern Hemisphere and a counter clockwise patern in the
Southern Hemisphere, then you are a keen observer. The Coriolis Effect is the result of Earth's rotation on weather
patterns and ocean currents. Earth’s rotation from west to east causes surface ocean currents to swerve to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere, helping establish the circular, clockwise pattern of water currents. In the Southern Hemisphere, ocean
currents swerve to the left, thereby moving in a circular, counter clockwise pattern.

Deep ocean currents are affected by seawater density. Density increases as temperature decreases, this makes
cold water saltier and colder water flows under warmer water. The coriolis effect has a greater influence in deep ocean
currents. The picture below shows the ocean conveyor belt. This represents the global circulation of shallow (warm, less
salty) and deep (cold, saltier) current. The ocean conveyor belt affects regional and global climate.

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 Wind from the atmosphere affect ocean currents and heat from the ocean affect atmospheric circulation. Two of the
most common of this interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean are the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and
La Niña phenomena.

El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of what is known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation cycle. The ENSO
cycle is a scientific term that describes the fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and atmosphere in the east-
central Equatorial Pacific (approximately between the International Date Line and 120 degrees West).

La Niña is sometimes referred to as the cold phase of ENSO and El Niño as the warm phase of ENSO. These
deviations from normal surface temperatures can have large-scale impacts not only on ocean processes, but also on global
weather and climate.

El Niño and La Niña episodes typically last nine to 12 months, but some prolonged events may last for years. While
their frequency can be quite irregular, El Niño and La Niña events occur on average every two to seven years. Typically, El
Niño occurs more frequently than La Niña.
El Niño

El Niño means The Little Boy, or Christ Child in Spanish. El Niño was originally recognized by fishermen off the
coast of South America in the 1600s, with the appearance of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean. The name was
chosen based on the time of year (around December) during which these warm waters events tended to occur.

The term El Niño refers to the large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction linked to a periodic warming in sea
surface temperatures across the central and east-central Equatorial Pacific.

Typical El Niño effects are likely to develop over North America during the upcoming winter season. Those include
warmer-than-average temperatures over western and central Canada, and over the western and northern United States.
Wetter-than-average conditions are likely over portions of the U.S. Gulf Coast and Florida, while drier-than-average
conditions can be expected in the Ohio Valley and the Pacific Northwest. The presence of El Niño can significantly influence
weather patterns, ocean conditions, and marine fisheries across large portions of the globe for an extended period of time.
La Niña

La Niña means The Little Girl in Spanish. La Niña is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti-El Niño, or simply "a cold
event." La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across the east-central Equatorial
Pacific. Global climate La Niña impacts tend to be opposite those of El Niño impacts. In the tropics, ocean temperature
variations in La Niña also tend to be opposite those of El Niño. During a La Niña year, winter temperatures are warmer than
normal in the Southeast and cooler than normal in the Northwest.

Watch the video links below to have a better understanding of ENSO and La Niña

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iVCviVp4rLU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzat16LMtQk

B. Major Ocean Life Zones

I. Introduction
The immense marine environment is subdivided into 3 life zones. These are:
- Intertidal zone (between low and high tides)

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 - Pelagic Environment (ocean water)
o Neritic Province
o Oceanic Province
▪ Epipelagic Zone
▪ Mesopelagic Zone
▪ Bathypelagic Zone
▪ Abyssalpelagic Zone
▪ Hadopelagic Zone
- Benthic Environment (ocean floor)
o Bathyal Zone
o Abyssal Zone
o Hadal Zone

II. Objective of the Lesson

1. Describe and distinguish among the four main ocean life zones.

III. Activity 2. (20 points). See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.

Materials needed
1. Cut-outs of different sea creatures listed in the box. (size should be in proper aspect ratio with the ocean
zones on the next page.

Algae Giant squid Seaweeds

Anglerfish Hatchetfish Squid
Bioluminescent jellyfish Jellyfish Swordfish
Corals Kelp Tube worms
Cuttlefish Octopus Tuna
Dinoflagellates Phytoplankton Wolf fish
Dolphins Sea spiders

2. Paste or glue

Procedures
1. Paste the cut-outs in its proper location in the ocean zones on the next page.

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IV. Lesson Proper

Organisms living in the foreshore of the beach must be adapted to both wet and dry conditions as this area is
underwater at high tide. Animals like sea anemones, barnacles, chitons, crabs, isopods, limpets, mussels, sea stars, snails
and whelks have all adapted to survive being smashed by rough waves or carried out to sea.

The littoral zone can refer to the shoreline of a body of fresh or saltwater and also means any area close to the water
or influenced by the water. For a freshwater biome, the littoral zone is the area with abundant light close to the shore. The
littoral zone in a pond or lake allows for prolific photosynthetic activity and consequently hosts almost all of the aquatic plant
life. Because the water is so near to littoral zones, both freshwater and saltwater, the organisms existing here are often
found in dunes or estuaries. The large amount of water available helps to create a nice habitat for a variety of plants and
animals and adds humidity, a feature that allows for the more unique organisms to survive. Humans also frequently rely on
the littoral region as can be observed in the large populations living near the sea.

The littoral region consists of three subzones called the supralittoral zone, the intertidal zone and the sublittoral zone.
The supralittoral zone or “spray zone” is only underwater during storms, and is located between the high-tide line and dry
land. The intertidal zone is located between high and low tides. The sublittoral zone is always underwater and is below the
low tide line. This zone extends all the way to where the continental shelf drops off into the abyssal plane.

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 Everything except areas near the coast and the sea floor is called the pelagic zone. The opposite term is the demersal
zone which is the water near to and affected by the coast or the sea floor. The pelagic zone is divided into epipelagic,
mesopelagic, bathypelagic, abyssopelagic, and hadopelagic zones.

The epipelagic zone stretches from the surface down to 200 m and is home to the greatest biodiversity in the sea,
largely because of the availability of sunlight that enables photosynthetic organisms to thrive. Both marine plants and
animals are found here. From 200-1,000 m is the mesopelagic zone, a twilight zone where some light filters through but
does not reach a level of brightness necessary for photosynthesis to occur.

The bathypelagic zone is from 1,000-4,000 m and completely dark. Bioluminescent organisms, some of the strangest
marine creatures of the deep live here. Plants are non-existent in the bathypelagic zone. Animals that can live here survive
on the dead material, or detritus, that falls from surface zones on other animals that live in the deep sea. The giant squid is
a resident of the bathypelagic zone and serve as a food source for deep-diving sperm whales. Most animals in the
abyssopelagic zone, located from 4,000 m down, are blind and colorless due to the complete lack of light. The name,
“abyssopelagic” comes from the Greek meaning “bottomless abyss”, in times where it was thought that the deep ocean
never ended. The hadopelagic zone is the area of deep water in the deepest ocean trenches. Hadopelagic is from the Greek
for “Hades“, or the Greek underworld.

The photic zone (with light) of the open ocean consists of the epipelagic and mesopelagic zones. The aphotic zone
(without light) of the open ocean consists of all the zones lower in the ocean. The lower zones are often simply grouped into
the aphotic zone by marine biologists due to their similarities.

The abyssal plain is a flat or gently sloping part of the ocean floor, reaching a depth between 2,200-5,500 m. In the
abyssal plain, rocks are embedded into the ocean floor due to the lack of supporting heat energy below. This effect results
in the flattest and smoothest regions of the world. Abyssal plains usually are found between the base of a continental rise
(or shelf) and a mid-oceanic ridge. The surface was not always smooth, but became covered in fine-grained sediments like
clay and silt deposited from turbidity currents and channelled down underwater canyons into deeper areas. Other sediments
adding to the effect are clay particle dust blown into the sea from land and tiny pieces of dead plants and animals falling
from surface layers. The Pacific Ocean has the least number of abyssal plains, the direct result of sediments in submarine
trenches surrounding the Pacific Ocean becoming trapped.

V. Activity 3. (10 points). See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.

Briefly define or describe the following terms

1. Corals _____________________________________________________________________
2. Planktons ___________________________________________________________________
3. Phytoplanktons_______________________________________________________________
4. Kelps ______________________________________________________________________
5. Sea Grasses ________________________________________________________________

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 C. Human Impacts on the Ocean

I. Introduction

The ocean is so vast and yet human activities could harm it. Improper fisheries and aquaculture, marine shipping, marine
pollution, coastal development, offshore mining and global climate change all contribute to the degradation of marine
environments.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

1. Contrast fishing and aquaculture and relate the environmental challenges of each activity.
2. Identify the human activities that contribute to marine pollution and describe their effects.
3. Explain how global climate change could potentially alter the ocean conveyor belt.

III. Activity 4 (10 points). See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.

Explain how the following affects the ocean environment.

1. Overfishing
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Aquaculture
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Invasive species
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. By catch
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Habitat destruction
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Coastal development
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7. Invasive species
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
8. Point source pollution
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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 9. Nonpoint source pollution
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
10. Climate change
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

IV. Lesson Proper

One of the great paradoxes of human civilization is that the same ocean that provides food to a hungry world is used
as a dumping ground. Coastal and marine ecosystems receive pollution from land, from rivers emptying into the ocean, and
from atmospheric contaminants that enter the ocean via precipitation. Offshore mining and oil drilling pollute the neritic
province with oil and other contaminants. Pollution increasingly threatens the world’s fisheries. Events such as accidental
oil spills—such as the devastating Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010—and the deliberate dumping of
litter pollute the water. The World Resources Institute estimates that about 80% of global ocean pollution comes from human
activities on land.

The ocean contains valuable food resources. About 90 % of the world’s total marine catch is fishes, with clams,
oysters, squid, octopus, and other molluscs representing 6% of the total catch. Crustaceans, including lobsters, shrimp, and
crabs, make up about 3 %, and marine algae constitute the remaining 1%. Fleets of deep-sea fishing vessels obtain most
of the world’s marine harvest. Numerous fishes are also captured in shallow coastal waters and inland waters. According
to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world annual fish harvest increases substantially over the years.

Resources in the ocean are more susceptible to overuse and degradation than land resources, which individual
nations own and for which they feel responsible as no nation has legal claim to the open ocean.
The most serious problem for marine fisheries is that many species have been harvested to the point that their numbers are
severely depleted. Contributory to this is the modernization of commercial fishing methods as the demand for fish protein
increases with human population doubling. Aside from this, “by catch” will also simultaneously increase. In recent years,
fish harvest by aquaculture has continued to
increase, while fishing (wild catch) has leveled off.

Another major contributor to aquatic resources degradation is pollution. Millions of ships dump oily ballast and other
wastes overboard in the neritic and oceanic provinces. Huge quantities of trash containing plastics are released into the
ocean, sometimes accidentally, from coastal communities or cargo ships. Plastics don’t biodegrade; they photodegrade,
which means that exposure to light breaks them down into smaller and smaller pieces that exist for an indefinite period.

Industrial exploitations also include development of resorts, cities, industries, and agriculture along coasts. It alters
or destroys many coastal ecosystems, including mangrove forests, salt marshes, sea grass beds, and coral reefs. Other
human activities are offshore mining of reserves of oil and minerals like manganese. These have long been tapped as a
major source of energy. However, obtaining oil and gas resources from the seafloor generally poses a threat to fishing.
Imagine its impact on the coral reefs to where fishes live.

Finally, global warming not only affects the aerial environment but the ocean environment as well. This would
definitely affect the movements in the ocean conveyor belt.

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 D. APPLICATION

Young people like you may not have all the answers to the issues concerning our ocean problems. However, it takes a
ripple to create a big wave. Even if we live in the mountains of Baguio City, we have great contributions to the factors
causing ocean problems. Remember all waters drain to the sea; at some point, the balloons you release here could end up
somewhere in the ocean and may be ingested by aquatic animals. With these thoughts, give at least 10 suggestions on
how you could make an impact in the restoration of the ocean ecosystem. (Please answer it on a separate sheet).

E. ASSESSMENT

I. Match Column A (Oceanic Zones) to Column B (Aquatic Plants and Animals).

COLUMN A COLUMN B
_______1. Dolphins A. Epipelagic zone
_______2. Hatchetfish B. Mesopelagic zone
_______3. Corals C. Bathylpelagic zone
_______4. Tube worms D. Hadal zone
_______5. Algae
_______6. Phytoplankton
_______7. Giant squid
_______8. Sea spiders
_______9. Swordfish
_______10. Wolf fish
_______11.Kelp
_______12. Octopus
_______13. Dinoflagellates
_______14. Jellyfish
_______15. Bioluminescent jellyfish
_______16.Tuna
_______17. Cuttlefish
_______18. Anglerfish
_______19. Squid
_______20. Seaweeds

II. Identification. Write the word described by each item on the space provided.

1. The effect of this tends to deflect moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern and is important in the formation of cyclonic weather systems._______________________________

2. This is an irregularly occurring and complex series of climatic changes affecting the equatorial Pacific region and
beyond every few years, characterized by the appearance of unusually warm, nutrient-poor water off northern
Peru and Ecuador, typically in late December. ___________________________________

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 3. This is a climate pattern that describes the cooling of surface ocean waters along the tropical west coast of South
America characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean.
____________________________________

4. This is a large system of rotating ocean currents. ______________________________

5. This is a constantly moving system of deep-ocean circulation driven by temperature and salinity.
_____________________________________

6. These are the 2 zones of the photic zone.

_____________________________/_______________________________

7. This is the farming of aquatic animals or plants, including breeding, raising and harvesting in all types of water
environments in controlled conditions. ___________________________________

8. These are unwanted fish and other sea animals caught in fishing net along with the desired kind of fish.
_______________________________

9. This type of pollution occurs as a result of runoff. When rain or melted snow moves over and through the ground,
the water absorbs and assimilates any pollutants it comes into contact with.
_______________________________________

10. This is the process by which a substance is altered via photons, especially those found in the wavelengths of the
sun's rays. __________________________________

V. Rubrics
Activity 2
Excellent Good Fair Poor
5 pts 4 pts 3 pts 2pts
Organization The pictures were The pictures & The pictures & words were The pictures & words were not
extremely well words were well generally organized/ organized/ balanced did not
organized/ balanced organized and balanced, but may not include several types of
and included several included several have included various pictures, words, art required for
different types of different types of types of pictures required this assignment.
pictures, words, media photos or art for this assignment.
drawings required for this
assignment.
Content The picture collage The picture collage The picture collage The picture collage did not
Knowledge sincerely demonstrated clearly generally demonstrated demonstrate student's
student's understanding demonstrated student's understanding of understanding of gratitude
of the gratitude student's gratitude and/or the and/or the assignment.
assignment. Student understanding of assignment, but a few
added extra information gratitude and/or things were lacking.
above what was needed assignment.
or discussed in class.
Format Student followed format Student followed Student generally followed Student did not follow format
given for this format given for this format given for this given for this assignment.
assignment and assignment and assignment; All pics must
included all required included all be obtained from a
information. Student required common free site
may have also included information. All pics however, there were still a
something extra. All pics must be obtained few things missing. . There
must be obtained from a from a common was some own writing or
common free site There free site There was drawings.

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 was no writing or none of the
drawings by the student. students own
writing or drawings.
Creativity The student The student Some effort Not much effort put into making the collage
demonstrated demonstrated creative was given to colorful, unique, or eye-catching.
creative methods methods for designing a make the
for designing a collage. Various materials collage
collage. Various were utilized and colors interesting.
materials were were distributed.
utilized and colors
were distributed. It
was very neat and
appealing.
Activities 3 and 4.
Unsatisfactory Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding
3 pts 5 pts 7 pts 10 pts
Content & -Content is - Content is not - Content is accurate - Content is
Development incomplete. comprehensive and comprehensive,
- Major points are not and /or persuasive. accurate, and
clear. persuasive. - Major points are persuasive.
-Specific examples - Major points are stated. - Major points are stated
are not used. addressed, but - Responses are clearly and are
not well adequate and well supported.
supported. address topic. - Responses are
- Responses are - Content is clear. excellent, timely
inadequate or do -Specific examples and address topic.
not address topic. are used. - Content is clear.
-Specific examples do -Specific examples are
not support topic. used.
Organization & - Organization and - Structure of the paper - Structure is mostly -Structure of the paper
Structure structure is not easy to clear and easy is clear and easy
detract from the follow. to follow. to follow.
message. - Transitions need - Transitions are - Transitions are logical
- Writing is disjointed improvement. present. and maintain the
and lacks - Conclusion is missing, - Conclusion is flow of thought
transition of or if provided, logical. throughout the
thoughts. does not flow paper.
from the body of - Conclusion is logical
the paper. and flows from the
body of the paper.
Grammar, - Paper contains - Paper contains few - Rules of grammar, - Rules of grammar,
Punctuation & numerous grammatical, usage, and usage, and
Spelling grammatical, punctuation and punctuation are punctuation are
punctuation, spelling errors. followed with followed; spelling
and spelling minor errors. is correct.
errors. Spelling is
correct.

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 CHAPTER 13
MINERAL AND SOIL RESOURCES

I. Introduction

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body,
lode, vein, seam, and reef or placer deposit. These deposits provide much economic interest to the miner. A popular mining
company in the Philippines advertise on television that mining is a means for financing alternative livelihood paths that, over
the long-term, may prevent biodiversity loss. However, in reality it poses serious and highly specific threats to biodiversity.

Mining affects biodiversity at multiple spatial scales (site, landscape, regional and global) through direct (mineral
extraction) and indirect processes (via industries supporting mining operations, and external stakeholders who gain access
to biodiversity-rich areas as the result of mining).

Relationships between mining and biodiversity are complex and interact with other threatening processes over multiple
scales. To effectively manage biodiversity in mining regions, the full extent and distribution of threats must be better
understood and incorporated into conservation plans and decision-making. Hence, the regulation of mineral prospecting,
extraction and processing should be implemented.

II. Objectives
1. Appreciate the relationship of plate tectonics to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
2. Diagram a simplified version of the rock cycle.
3. Contrast the consumption of minerals by developing and highly developed countries.
4. Distinguish between surface mining and subsurface mining
5. Describe briefly the process of smelting
6. Relate the environmental impacts of mining and refining minerals
7. Explain how mining lands can be restored

III. Activity 1. (20 points)

Materials needed
1. 1/2 cup water
2. 3 sachets Milo powder (or its equivalent)
3. Small flat pan (about 6-12 inches diameter)
4. Heat source (ex. stove)
5. Spoon

Procedures (Be sure to have an adult supervise you while doing the activity at home)
1. Pour the cup of water onto the pan
2. Empty the sachets of milo over the water and evenly flatten the powder with a spoon
3. Heat the pan over the stove at low fire for 5 – 10 minutes
4. Observe what happens to the surface of the powder

Describe the appearance of the powder

a. Before heating.
________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
b. After heating
________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
What made the difference in the appearance of the powder after heating? ________________________

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Note: You may also try out the link below if you happen to have no materials for the activity.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SiUtml2qZkU

Activity 2. (20 points)

Materials needed
1. Milky Way chocolate bar (or Chooey Tofee)
2. Blunt knife
Procedures
1. Gently open the candy bar. Be careful not to break any of its outer chocolate coating.
2. To illustrate divergent boundaries, run the blunt knife across the surface of the chocolate bar. Hold the
opposite ends of the bar and pull it apart to about half an inch. Take a picture of your result.
3. To illustrate transform boundaries, first, return the bar to its original form. Move the bars by sliding it to the
side-to-side. Take a picture of your result.
4. To illustrate convergent boundaries, first, return the bar to its original form. Push the bars towards each other
for about half an inch or until the chocolate coating rises over each other. Take a picture of your result.
5. Send your pictures to your instructor’s messenger account. Don’t forget to label your pictures.

IV. Lesson Proper

Plate Tectonics and Rock Cycle

Above is an illustration of the earth’s layers. Notice that the outer core is in liquid state. The outermost rigid rock
layer, the lithosphere, consists of Earth’s crust composed of the outermost layer and the uppermost part of the mantle. It
contains seven large plates, plus a few smaller ones, that float on the asthenosphere, the region of the mantle where rocks
become hot and soft. Continents and land masses are situated on some of these plates. As the plates move across Earth’s
surface, the continents change their relative positions.

The theory of plate tectonics states that Earth's outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces
called plates: the African, North American, South American, Eurasian, Australian, Antarctic, and Pacific plates. Several

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minor plates include the Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates. The plates are all moving in different directions and at
different speeds (from 2 cm to 10 cm per year--about the speed at which your fingernails grow) in relationship to each other.
The plates are moving around like cars in a demolition derby, which means they sometimes crash together, pull apart, or
sideswipe each other. The place where the two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Boundaries have different names
depending on how the two plates are moving in relationship to each other. These are:

• crashing: Convergent Boundaries

• pulling apart: Divergent Boundaries
• or sideswiping: Transform Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries

Places where plates crash or crunch together are called convergent boundaries. Plates only move a few centimeters
each year, so collisions are very slow and last millions of years. Even though plate collisions take a long time, lots of
interesting things happen. The edge of the continental plate folds into a huge mountain range while the edge of the oceanic
plate bends downward and digs deep into the Earth. A trench may also form at the bend. All that folding and bending makes
rocks in both plates break and slip, causing earthquakes. As the edge of the oceanic plate digs into Earth's hot interior,
some of the rock in it melts. The melted rock rises up through the continental plate, causing more earthquakes on its way
up, and forming volcanic eruptions where it finally reaches the surface. An example of this type of collision is found on the
west coast of South America where the oceanic Nazca Plate is crashing into the continent of South America. The crash
formed the Andes Mountains, the long string of volcanoes along the mountain crest, and the deep trench off the coast in
the Pacific Ocean.

Divergent Boundaries

Places where plates are coming apart are called divergent boundaries. As shown in the activity performed with the
chocolate bar. When Earth's brittle surface layer (the lithosphere) is pulled apart, it typically breaks along parallel faults that
tilt slightly outward from each other. As the plates separate along the boundary, the block between the faults cracks and
drops down into the soft, plastic interior (the asthenosphere). The sinking of the block forms a central valley called a rift.
Magma (liquid rock) seeps upward to fill the cracks. In this way, new crust is formed along the boundary. Earthquakes occur
along the faults, and volcanoes form where the magma reaches the surface. Plate separation is a slow process. For
example, divergence along the Mid Atlantic ridge causes the Atlantic Ocean to widen at only about 2 centimeters per year.

Transform Boundaries

Places where plates slide past each other are called transform boundaries. Since the plates on either side of a
transform boundary are merely sliding past each other and not tearing or crunching each other, transform boundaries lack
the violent features found at convergent and divergent boundaries. Instead, transform boundaries are marked in some
places by linear valleys along the boundary where rock has been ground up by the sliding. In other places, transform
boundaries are marked by features like stream beds that have been split in half and the two halves have moved in opposite
directions.
Perhaps the most famous transform boundary in the world is the San Andreas fault. The slice of California to the
west of the fault is slowly moving north relative to the rest of California. Since motion along the fault is sideways and not
vertical, Los Angeles will not crack off and fall into the ocean as popularly thought in the movies, but it will simply creep
towards San Francisco at about 6 centimeters per year. In about ten million years, the two cities will be side by side!

Although transform boundaries are not marked by spectacular surface features, their sliding motion causes lots of
earthquakes. The strongest and most famous earthquake along the San Andreas Fault hit San Francisco in 1906.

Volcanoes

The movement of tectonic plates on the hot, soft rock of the asthenosphere causes most volcanic activity. Magma is
produced as places where the asthenosphere is close to the surface and the heat from this part of Earth’s mantle melts the
surrounding rock. When one plate slides under or away from another, this magma may rise to the surface, often forming
volcanoes. Magma that reaches the surface is called lava.

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3 locations of volcano occurrences
1. Subduction zone - region of the Earth's crust where tectonic plates meet (convergent boundaries)
2. Spreading centers - occur at the boundary between two plates that are moving apart (divergent boundaries)
3. Above hot spots – rising plume of magma that flows from an opening in the earth’s crust beneath the ocean or
continents

Activity 3. (10 points)

Briefly describe the Pacific Ring of Fire. What is its classification of volcano occurrences in these areas?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur when plates along a fault suddenly move in opposite directions relative to one another. This movement
triggers seismic waves that radiate through the crust.

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Activity 4 (15 points)

1. Define the different terms labelled on the picture above.

2. Compare and contrast the Richter scale and the moment magnitude scale.
3. Define the following terms in relation to earthquakes;
a. Landslide
b. Tsunami
The Rock Cycle

Rocks which are aggregates of one or more minerals do not remain in their original form forever. They are converted into
3 forms:
1. Igneous rocks - form when magma rises from the mantle and cools.
2. Sedimentary rocks - form when small fragments of weathered, eroded rocks (or marine organisms) are
deposited, compacted, and cemented together.
3. Metamorphic rocks - form when intense heat and pressure alter igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic
rocks.

Activity 5 (10 points).

1. Label the type of rock in the illustration of the cycle below.

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Useful Minerals

Earth’s outermost layer, the crust, contains many kinds of minerals that are of economic importance. Minerals are
elements or (usually) compounds of elements and have precise chemical compositions. Below are some of the more
important minerals that are of economic value. How many of these have you used?

Activity 6 (10 points)

1. Define the following terms in relation to mineral compounds.

a. Sulfides - _______________________________________________________________
b. Oxides - ________________________________________________________________
c. Metals - ________________________________________________________________
d. Non-metals - ____________________________________________________________
e. High grade Ores - ________________________________________________________
f. Low grade Ores - ________________________________________________________

Extraction and Processing of Minerals

1. Locating a particular mineral deposit

- geologic knowledge of Earth’s crust and how minerals are formed is used to estimate locations of
possible mineral deposits.
2. Drilling or tunnelling for mineral samples
3. Analysing their composition
4. Mining the mineral from the ground
a. Surface mining
- minerals are extracted near the surface
- more common because it is less expensive

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 - the overlying soil and rock layers (overburden), must first be removed
2 types of Surface mining
1. Open-pit surface mining
▪ a giant hole (quarry) is dug in the ground to extract the minerals
▪ ex. iron, copper, stone, and gravel
2. Strip mining
▪ a trench is dug to extract the minerals then a new trench is dug parallel to the old
one, and the overburden from the new trench is put into the old one, creating a hill of
loose rock called a spoil bank
b. Subsurface mining
- extracts minerals too deep in the ground to be removed by surface mining
- it disturbs the land less than surface mining
- more expensive and more hazardous for miners
o risk of death or injury from explosions or collapsing walls, and prolonged breathing of
dust in subsurface mines can result in lung disease
- may be done with underground shaft mines or slope mines

A shaft mine, often used for mining coal, is a direct vertical shaft to the vein of ore. The ore is broken up
underground and then hoisted through the shaft to the surface in buckets.

A slope mine has a slanting passage that makes it possible to haul the broken ore out of the mine in cars rather than
to hoist it up in buckets. Sump pumps keep a subsurface mine dry, and a second shaft is usually installed for ventilation.

5. Processing the mineral

- Minerals are refined by concentrating it and removing impurities.
6. Purified mineral is used to make a product.

Activity 7. Name the following pictures based on the descriptions of type of mining above. Send a screenshot of
your answer to your instructor’s messenger account. (10 points)

______________________________ ____________________________

_____________________________ _________________________

Processing Minerals

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 Processing minerals often involves smelting. This is a process of applying heat to ore in a blast furnace in order to
extract a base metal. It is used to extract many metals from their ores, including silver, iron, copper, tin, lead, manganese
and other base metals. Chemical reactions take place throughout the furnace as the ore moves downward: The iron ore
reacts with coke (modified coal) to form molten iron and carbon dioxide, whereas the limestone reacts with impurities in the
ore to form a molten mixture called slag. Both molten iron and slag collect at the bottom, but slag floats on molten iron
because it is less dense than iron. The slag is cooled and then disposed of. Note the vent near the top of the iron smelter
for exhaust gases. If air pollution control devices are not installed, many dangerous gases are emitted during smelting.

IV. Application

There is no question that mineral use harms the environment. The extraction, processing, and disposal of minerals have
external costs. The following are facts about harms caused by mining:

1. Mining disturbs and damages the land

2. Processing and disposal of minerals pollute the air, soil, and water
3. Although pollution can be controlled and damaged lands can be restored, these remedies are costly

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Activity 8. (20 points).

1. Watch the clips on youtube by typing these links on your browser https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvVV-tjnmiU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WvJZY14fOgk
2. Make a reflection paper regarding environmental issues related to mining. The following are your guides.
a. What is the impact of the ill effects of mining to your life?
i. Vegetation
ii. Animal habitat
iii. Water
iv. Air
v. Toxic chemicals
vi. Aesthetic destruction
b. Is there a balance between the benefits and harms brought about by mining?
c. How can you contribute in curbing these environmental issues?

V. Assessment

Identification
1. This is the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle. _____________
2. It is the upper layer of the earth's mantle where there is relatively low resistance to plastic flow and rocks become
hot and soft. ___________________
3. This is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger
number of smaller plates of the Earth's surface. ____________________
4. These are places where plates crash or crunch together. ______________________
5. These are places where plates are coming apart. _______________________
6. These are places where plates slide past each other. _______________________
7. These are magma that have reached the earth’s surface. _____________________
8. This is a volcano location caused by divergence. _________________________
9. This happens when there is a a sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction,
as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action. ______________________
10. This is the point on the Earth's surface directly above a focus. ____________________
11. These are waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
__________________________
12. This is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an
ocean or a large lake. ____________________________
13. This is also known as “magmatic rock”. __________________________
14. This is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical
formula. ______________________
15. These elements have high ionization energies and electronegativities. They are generally poor conductors of heat
and electricity, the best example of this is carbon. ____________________
16. This is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by making a borrow or a large
hole in the ground. _________________________

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 17. This sub-surface mining is done by making a direct vertical shaft to the vein of ore.
____________________________
18. This is a process of applying heat to ore in a blast furnace in order to extract a base metal.
____________________________
19. This is a stony waste matter separated from metals during the smelting or refining of ore.
___________________________
20. This is a layer of the earth that is in liquid state. ________________________
VI. Rubrics

Activities 3,6 and 8

Unsatisfactory Needs Improvement Satisfactory Outstanding

3 pts 5 pts 7 pts 10 pts

Content & -Content is incomplete. - Content is not - Content is accurate - Content is

Development - Major points are not comprehensive and /or and persuasive. comprehensive, accurate,
clear. persuasive. - Major points are and persuasive.
-Specific examples are - Major points are stated. - Major points are stated
not used. addressed, but not well - Responses are clearly and are well
supported. adequate and address supported.
- Responses are topic. - Responses are
inadequate or do not - Content is clear. excellent, timely and
address topic. -Specific examples are address topic.
-Specific examples do used. - Content is clear.
not support topic. -Specific examples are
used.

Organization & - Organization and - Structure of the paper - Structure is mostly -Structure of the paper is
Structure structure detract from is not easy to follow. clear and easy to clear and easy to follow.
the message. - Transitions need follow. - Transitions are logical
- Writing is disjointed improvement. - Transitions are and maintain the flow of
and lacks transition of - Conclusion is present. thought throughout the
thoughts. missing, or if provided, - Conclusion is logical. paper.
does not flow from the - Conclusion is logical and
body of the paper. flows from the body of the
paper.

Grammar, Punctuation & - Paper contains numerous - Paper contains few - Rules of grammar, usage, - Rules of grammar, usage, and
Spelling grammatical, punctuation, grammatical, punctuation and punctuation are followed punctuation are followed;
and spelling errors. and spelling errors. with minor errors. spelling is correct.
Spelling is correct.

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Activity 4

Poor Fair Good

1 pts 3 pts 5 pts

Vocabulary Definition The definition of the A definition of the vocabulary The correct definition is used,
vocabulary word is not word is incomplete. and is complete.
included on the page or the
wrong definition is written.

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 CHAPTER 14

LAND RESOURCES

Accounts of the Philippines land-use from the 16th century to the present day is based on existing statistics, inventories,
and other research on land use. Although it is difficult to find reliable empirical data on historical land-use changes, the
major land-use trends are understandable. Population growth and economic opportunities triggered the conversion of forest
land to other uses. Notable conversion of forest to agriculture started in the 18th century when the Philippines was integrated
into the world economy. During this century, forest cover has continued to decline rapidly while the areas of intensive
agriculture and extensive land uses have continued to increase.

An unchecked use of land makes the Philippines susceptible to natural disasters. It is a tropical country that has been
historically prone to harsh weather conditions and calamities. The 2016 World Risk Index report even ranked it 3rd among
171 countries most vulnerable to natural hazards. It has since improved its ranking for 2018 by coming in 69th over 173
countries.

Both the Executive and Legislative Departments of the Philippines have been pushing for the passage of the proposed
National Land Use Act for many years. Passing it would mean keeping the country’s lands from further misuse and
degradation.

June is Philippine Environment Month, at this current climate, it is essential that environmental action be taken seriously
by everyone, but particularly by large industries that implement projects that have a considerable ecological impact. The
National Land Use Act (NLUA) was a proposed bill in 2018 that aims to promote and enforce sustainable practices to protect
the country’s natural environment. Passing this would provide further safeguards to biodiversity and clearer guidelines for
infrastructure development.

I. Introduction

Land uses can be classified in several ways. Land uses are divided into the following classes:

1. agricultural land
a. arable land
- land cultivated for crops like wheat, maize, and rice that are replanted after each harvest
b. permanent crops land
- land cultivated for crops like citrus, coffee, and rubber that are not replanted after each harvest,
and includes land under flowering shrubs, fruit trees, nut trees, and vines
c. permanent pastures and meadows land
- land used for at least five years or more to grow herbaceous forage, either cultivated or growing
naturally
2. forest
- land spanning more than 0.5 hectare with trees higher than five meters and a canopy cover of
more than 10% to include windbreaks, shelterbelts, and corridors of trees greater than 0.5
hectare and at least 20 m wide
3. other
- includes built-up areas, roads and other transportation features, barren land, or wasteland

II. Objectives
1. Describe the different land use in the Philippines
2. Define sustainable forestry and explain how monocultures and habitat corridors are related to it.
3. Define deforestation, including clearcutting, and list the main causes of tropical deforestation.

III. Activity 1 (20 points). See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.
1. Complete the pie graph of the latest status of land use in the Philippines below.
2. Properly label each portion

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 Philippines Land Use

IV. Lesson Proper

The Philippines is an archipelago that comprises 7,641 islands with a total land area of 300,000 square kilometers
(115,831 sq mi). It is the world's 5th largest island country. The eleven largest islands contain 95% of the total land area.
The following is the estimated land-use as of 2019:

a. agricultural land: 41%

- arable land: 18.2%
- permanent crops: 17.8%
- permanent pasture: 5%
b. forest: 25.9%
c. other: 33.1%

Deforestation

The most serious problem facing the world’s forests is deforestation. Britannica Encyclopedia defines deforestation
as the clearing or thinning of forests by humans. Deforestation represents one of the largest issues in global land use.
Estimates of deforestation traditionally are based on the area of forest cleared for human use, including removal of the trees
for wood products and for croplands and grazing lands. In the practice of clearcutting, all the trees are removed from the
land, which completely destroys the forest. In some cases, however, even partial logging and accidental fires thin out the
trees enough to change the forest structure dramatically.

According to latest FAO estimates, world forests shrank by more than 13 million hectares (32 million acres) annually
between 2000 and 2010. This is about ½ the size of Luzon. Deforestation is caused by the following natural and man-made
reasons:

- declining biological diversity

- reduced soil fertility
- insects and diseases
- fires triggered by drought
- land-clearing practices
- expansion of agriculture

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 - construction of roads and other infrastructure
- mining
- overharvesting of trees

Trees are cut for economic reasons. However, this may also be due to the needs of urbanization such as construction of
roads and buildings.

The table below is a portion of a Tree Cover Data for subnational administrative areas in Philippines lifted from
mongabay.com:

• Note: these data are for educational purposes any and is NOT meant to degrade the location or any political
affiliations.

Administrative Area Total Land Area (ha) Average Tree loss per % loss
year (ha)
2011-2018

Benguet 265,290 2,672 1%

LUZON
La Union 147,681 869 1% (lowest)
Apayao 392,655 35,684 10% (highest)
VISAYAS
Siquijor 32,490 216 2% (lowest)
Palawan 1,465,070 140,541 12% (highest)
MINDANAO
Camiguin 24,702 208 1% (lowest)
Agusan del Sur 861,285 103,675 13% (highest)
The table shows a comparison of lowest and highest percentage of trees lost in a span of 7 years in the three island
groups of Philippines including Benguet since it is the province to which Baguio City is Located. The percentage is based
on the number of trees lost as compared to the land area.

Areas that showed the lowest percentage of trees lost may be due to their existing land use during the period the
data were gathered, such as in La Union where most of its land area is agricultural. On the other hand, it may also be due
to its political and economic structure. Areas that showed the highest trees lost may be due to urbanization as well as its
political and economic structure as well.

Results of Deforestation

1. Decreased soil fertility

- as the essential mineral nutrients found in most forest soils leach away rapidly without trees to absorb them
2. Uncontrolled soil erosion
- particularly on steep deforested slopes
3. Affects the production of hydroelectric power

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 - silt builds up behind dams
4. Increased sedimentation of waterways caused by soil erosion
- harms downstream fisheries
5. Contributes to the formation of desert
- regulation of water flow is disrupted when a forest is removed
- affected region experiences alternating periods of flood and drought
6. Contributes to the extinction of many species
- importance of tropical forests as repositories of biological diversity
- many tropical species, in particular, have limited ranges within a forest, so they are especially vulnerable to
habitat modification and destruction
- migratory species, including birds and butterflies
7. Contributes to regional and global climate changes
- trees release substantial amounts of moisture into the air; in the hydrologic cycle, about 97 % of the water that
roots absorb from the soil is evaporated directly into the atmosphere and then falls back to Earth
8. Local rainfall may decline
- droughts may become more common in that region
- temperatures may rise slightly
- large parts of what had once been tropical rain forest could become savanna
9. Contributes to an increase in global temperature
- by releasing carbon originally stored in the trees into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, which enables the air to
retain heat
- When an old-growth forest is harvested, researchers estimate that it takes about200 years for the replacement
forest to accumulate the equivalent amount of carbon stored in the original trees

Activity 2 (20 points). See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.
1. Collect cut-outs or download clippings of pictures with a brief article of at least one each on the results of
deforestation.
2. Make a collage of the cut-outs on short bond paper. (5-8 pages)

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Forest Management

Previous strategy to solve deforestation is employing management for timber production. However, this disrupts a
forest’s natural cycle and alters its species composition and other characteristics. Here, specific varieties of trees bought for
wood are planted, and those trees not as commercially desirable as others are thinned out or removed. This forest management
style often results in low- diversity forests. In the southeastern United States, many tree plantations of young pine grown for
timber and paper production are all the same age and are planted in rows a fixed distance apart. In the U.S. Northwest and
southwestern Canada, tree farms of hybrid poplars are becoming increasingly common, primarily because of the tree’s viability
as a paper source. These “forests” are called as monocultures. This means that are areas uniformly covered by one crop, like a
field of rice. Herbicides are sprayed to kill shrubs and herbaceous plants between the rows like in ordinary gardens.

Disadvantages of monocultures include:

1. increased risk of damage from insect pests and disease-causing microorganisms
- this results to the application of insecticides and fungicides
2. contains few kinds of food
- they can’t support the variety of organisms typically found in natural forests

Sustainable forestry

A better way of solving deforestation is sustainable forestry. This is defined as the use and management of forest
ecosystems in an environmentally balanced and enduring way. This will maintain a mix of forest trees, by age and species, rather
than a monoculture, in which only one type of plant is cultivated over a large area.

Advantage of sustainable forestry is biodiversity which include:

- provision of improved habitats for a variety of species
- prevention of soil erosion and improvement of soil conditions
- preservation of watersheds that produce clean water

When logging adheres to sustainable forestry principles, unlogged areas and habitat corridors are set aside as
sanctuaries for organisms.

Purposes of habitat corridors

- to provide animals with escape routes, should they be needed
- to allow them to migrate so they can interbreed as small, isolated, inbred populations may have an increased risk
of extinction
- to allow large animals such as the Florida panther to maintain large territories

Activity 3 (20 points).

1. List down at least 5 habitat corridors in the Philippines. Give a brief description for each corridor.
2. Support your answer with a picture.

V. Assessment

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer. (10 points)
1. Which of the following has the greatest share of land use in the Philippines?

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 a. Forest
b. Urban
c. Agriculture
d. Administrative
2. This practice involves the total removal of trees from the land.
a. Slash and burn
b. Clearcutting
c. Deforestation
d. Monoculturing
3. This happens when water drains away nutrients from soil due to the absence of trees which have water-absorbing
capacity in its roots.
a. Increased sedimentation
b. Uncontrolled soil erosion
c. Decreased fertility in soil
d. Formation of desert
4. You and your friends went camping on a mountain, what can you do to contribute to the prevention of deforestation?
a. Sing community songs with friends
b. Make a blog about deforestation
c. Pocketing small trash to prevent clutter
d. Ensure that the campfire is out
5. This usually happens in steep slopes that have been deforested.
a. Increased sedimentation
b. Uncontrolled erosion
c. Desert formation
d. Extinction of species
6. Which of the following is a natural cause of deforestation?
a. Construction of roads
b. Mining
c. Insects and diseases
d. Overharvesting of trees
7. Benguet produces some of the in-demand vegetables in in Manila. To which category of land use does Benguet
belong to?
a. Agricultural
b. Forest
c. Others
d. Urban
8. Basilan Island is a major producer of rubber in the country. What category of land use is it categorized to?
a. Arable land
b. Permanent crops land
c. Permanent pastures land
d. Others
9. TPLEX is probably the most convenient road to use for travellers coming to Baguio. what is its category in land use?
a. Arable land
b. Permanent crops land
c. Permanent pastures land
d. Others
10. The earliest remedy that was suggested to solve deforestation is to plant specific varieties of trees that are bought for
wood. What is this practice called?
a. Forest management
b. Administrative control

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 c. Clearcutting
d. National Land Use Act

Rubrics

Activity 1
Excellent Above Average Satisfactory Poor
5 pts 4 pts 3 pts 2 pts
Data All data was entered Data entered correctly Data entered with less Attempt made to enter
correctly reflecting the with less than 2 minor than 4 minor errors data.
proper amount of mistakes
ingredients
Titles Main title , correct Main title, legend and One or more titles not Only one title entered
legend and data labels data labels entered entered correctly
used correctly correctly with less than
2 minor errors
Pie Chart Overall the pie chart Overall the pie chart Pie Chart created but Attempt at creating a
was created correctly; was created correctly; not reflecting the pie chart.
easy to interpret data; easy to interpret data; correct data. Hard to
arranged attractively arranged attractively interpret.
on the page. All on the page. All
directions were directions were
completed correctly. completed correctly
with less than 2 minor
errors.
Work quality/effort The work done The work was done Work is done with fair Work is done with little
exceeds all with good effort that effort, but the quality is effort, quality is not
expectations and shows what the learner still not what the what the learner is
shows that the learner is capable of. It is learner is capable of. It capable of. It is
is proud of his/her evident that time was is evident that the work evident that the work
work. The effort that put into this poster. was rushed. was rushed and little
was put into this task is time was spent on the
the best it can be by final product. Work is
the learner. incomplete.

Activity 2
Excellent Good Fair Poor
5 pts 4 pts 3 pts 2pts
Organization The pictures were The pictures & The pictures & The pictures & words were not
extremely well words were well words were organized/ balanced did not
organized/ balanced organized and generally include several types of pictures,
and included several included several organized/ words, art required for this
different types of different types of balanced, but may assignment.
pictures , words, media photos or art not have included
drawings required for this various types of
assignment. pictures required
for this
assignment.

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Content The picture collage The picture collage The picture collage The picture collage did not
Knowledge sincerely clearly generally demonstrate student's
demonstrated demonstrated demonstrated understanding of gratitude and/or
student's student's student's the assignment.
understanding of the understanding of understanding of
gratitude gratitude and/or gratitude and/or
assignment. Student assignment. the assignment,
added extra but a few things
information above were lacking.
what was needed or
discussed in class.
Format Student followed Student followed Student generally Student did not follow format
format given for this format given for followed format given for this assignment.
assignment and this assignment given for this
included all required and included all assignment; All
information. Student required pics must be
may have also information. All obtained from a
included something pics must be common free site
extra. All pics must obtained from a however, there
be obtained from a common free site were still a few
common free site There was none of things missing. .
There was no writing the students own There was some
or drawings by the writing or drawings. own writing or
student. drawings.
Creativity The student The student Some effort was Not much effort put into making
demonstrated demonstrated given to make the the collage colorful, unique, or
creative methods creative methods collage interesting. eye-catching.
for designing a for designing a
collage. Various collage. Various
materials were materials were
utilized and colors utilized and colors
were distributed. It were distributed.
was very neat and
appealing.
CHAPTER 15

AGRICULTURE AND FOOD RESOURCES

Food security comes when people have access to adequate amounts and kinds of food needed for healthy, active lives
at all times. World grain stocks provide a measure of food security; these are the amounts of rice, wheat, corn, and other
grains remaining from previous harvests as a cushion against poor harvests and rising costs. Unfortunately, grain stocks
have been decreasing since their all-time highs in the mid-1980s and late 1990s. According to the United Nations, world
grain stocks should not fall below a minimum of 70 days’ supply in a given year.

I. INTRODUCTION
World grain stocks have dropped in the past few years for several reasons. Many severe weather events have
occurred—record heat waves, severe droughts, and numerous wildfires—suggesting that the climate is warming, and
environmental conditions such as rising temperatures and falling water tables have caused poor harvests.

World grain stocks have also fallen because consumption of beef, pork, poultry, and eggs has increased in developing
countries such as China, where growing economy has led some people to diversify their diets. This trend represents a
global pattern: In highly developed countries, animal products account for 40% of the calories people consume, compared
to only 5% of the calories people in developing countries consume. Increased consumption of meat and meat products has
prompted a surge in the amount of grain used to feed the world’s billions of livestock animals: More than one-third of the

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world’s grain is now used to feed livestock. Thus, the global trend of eating more meat and other animal products is linked
to increased use of grains and other feed crops for livestock.

The Philippines is primarily an agricultural country despite the plan to make it industrialized with government program
“build-build-build”. Most citizens however, still live in rural areas and support themselves through agriculture. The country's
agriculture sector is made up of 4 sub-sectors: farming, fisheries, livestock, and forestry (the latter 2 sectors are very small),
which together employ 39.8% of the labor force and contribute 20% of GDP.

The country's main agricultural crops are rice, corn, coconut, sugarcane, bananas, pineapple, coffee, mangoes,
tobacco, and abaca. Secondary crops include peanut, cassava, camote, garlic, onion, cabbage, eggplant, calamansi,
rubber, and cotton.

II. OBJECTIVES

1. Differentiate between undernutrition and overnutrition.

2. Define food insecurity and relate it to human population, poverty, and world hunger.
3. To compute calorie intake.
4. Contrast industrialized agriculture with subsistence agriculture.
5. Describe four kinds of subsistence agriculture.
6. Describe the environmental impacts of industrialized agriculture, including land degradation.

The food problem has been high on the international agenda for the past years. This is due insufficient production
or maldistribution of adequate supplies. The response of each country to the problem differs according to their food balance
and economic circumstance, and the international reaction has to be tempered by these various needs. Some progress has
been made recently on the question of market stability, but the underlying problem is likely to persist for many years.

The latest U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report indicates that at the close of 2019, 135 million
people across 55 countries and territories experienced acute food insecurity, in the 55 food-crisis countries covered by the
report, 75 million children were stunted and 17 million suffered from wasting in 2019. This is the highest level of acute food
insecurity and malnutrition documented by the Network since the first edition of the report in 2017.

Additionally, in 2019, 183 million people were classified in Stressed Condition, this means that they are at the cusp
of acute hunger and at risk of slipping into crisis or worse if faced with a shock or stressor, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

More than half (73 million) of the 135 million people covered by the report live in Africa; 43 million live in the Middle
East and Asia; 18.5 million live in Latin America and the Caribbean. The key drivers behind the trends analyzed in the report
were: conflict, (the key factor that pushed 77 million people into acute food insecurity), weather extremes (34 million people)
and economic turbulence (24 million).

Acute food insecurity is when a person's inability to consume adequate food puts their lives or livelihoods in immediate
danger. It draws on internationally accepted measures of extreme hunger, such as the Integrated Food Security Phase
Classification (IPC) and the Cadre Harmonisé. It is more severe than chronic hunger, as reported on each year by the UN's
annual State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World report. Chronic hunger is when a person is unable to consume
enough food over an extended period to maintain a normal, active lifestyle.

III. ACTIVITY 1. Calorie Intake Calculation (20 points)

Materials you will need.

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 1. Weighing Scale
2. Yardstick or tape measure
3. Calculator

Procedures

1. Weigh yourself in pounds

2. Measure your height in inches
3. Calculate your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) by adding the product of your weight X 6.23 for males or 4.35 for
females and the product of your height X 12.7 for males or 4.7 for females. Deduct from the sum the product of
your age X 6.8 for males or 4.7 for females. The difference is the added with 66 for males or 655 for females.

Male: BMR = (weight X 6.23) + (height X 12.7) – (age X 6.8) + 66

Female: BMR = (weight X 4.35) + (height X 4.7) – (age X 4.7) + 655

4. Calculate your calorie intake by determining your daily activity level. Multiply your BMR with its corresponding
factor.

Activity Level Activities Factor

Sedentary Very little 1.2
Light 1-2 days/week 1.375
Moderate 3-5 days/week 1.55
Very active daily 1.725

Example.

Calculate the calorie intake of a moderately active 40-year old male with a weight of 180 pounds and height of 70
inches.

Solution: BMR = (180 X 6.23) + (70 X 12.7) – (40 X 6.8) + 66

= 1,804.4

Calorie intake = 1,804.4 X 1.55

= 2,722.42 calories needed per day

5. Write your computation on a whole sheet of paper and attach evidences of your weight and height
measurements.

IV. LESSON PROPER

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 An average adult human must consume enough food to get approximately 2600 kilocalories, or simply Calories per day.
People who receive fewer calories than needed are undernourished. Undernutrition is a type of malnutrition in which
underconsumption of calories or nutrients leave the body weakened and susceptible to disease.

A person with extended period of undernourishment may lose his health and his stamina declines, even to the point of
death. Worldwide, an estimated 182 million children under age 5 suffer from undernutrition and are seriously underweight,
according to the World Health Organization (WHO). People might receive enough calories in their diets but still be
malnourished because they do not receive enough essential nutrients, such as proteins, vitamin A, iodine, or iron.

On the other hand, people who eat more food than necessary are over-nourished. Generally, a person suffering from
overnutrition has a diet high in saturated (animal) fats, sugar, and salt. People who are over-nourished are most common
among people in highly developed nations such as the United States, this results obesity, high blood pressure, and an
increased likelihood of disorders such as diabetes, heart disease, and some cancers. This is also emerging in some
developing countries, particularly in urban areas, where, as people earn more money, their diets shift from consumption of
cereal grains to consumption of more livestock products and processed foods high in fat and sugar. In the Philippines, it is
ironic to note that most people living in poverty are obese. This is due to over-nourishment of carbohydrates stored as fat
in the body. Since rice is a staple food, it is often eaten alone with salt and oil just to get by each day in the absence of meat
and vegetables.

Population and World Hunger

According to the FAO, 66 countries are considered low income and food deficient, which means they cannot
produce enough food or afford to import enough food to feed the entire population. South Asia, with an estimated 330 million
hungry people, and sub-Saharan Africa, with an estimated 217.5 million who are hungry, are the regions of the world with
the greatest food insecurity, the condition in which people live with chronic hunger and malnutrition.

According to experts, there is an interrelation among world hunger, population, poverty, and environmental
problems. Different groups propose different solutions for resolving the world’s food problems, including controlling
population growth, promoting the economic development of countries that do not produce adequate food, and correcting
the inequitable distribution of resources. All experts agree that population pressures aggravate world food problems.

Activity 2. See scoring rubric at the end of this chapter.

1. Plot the data presented in Table 1 and Table 2 separately in a line graph using Excel.
(20 points)
2. Make your analysis on the region and its sub-region (18 points)

Table 1. Prevalence of undernourishment in the world from 2005 – 2018.

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Poverty and Food

Unarguably, the main cause of undernutrition is poverty where infants, children, and the elderly are most
susceptible. The world’s poorest people—those living in developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America—do not
own land on which to grow food and do not have sufficient money to purchase food. Poverty and hunger are not restricted
to developing nations, however; poor hungry people are also found in the United States, Europe, and Australia. World food
problems are many, as are their solutions. We must increase the sustainable production of food and improve food
distribution.

Highly developed nations can provide economic assistance and technical aid to help farmers in developing countries
produce more food. Globally, chronic hunger will persist so long as the human population remains above the level that the
environment can support.

Table 2. Number of Undernourished People in the World from 2005 – 2018.

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Principal Types of Agriculture

1. Industrialized agriculture
- in highly developed countries and some in developing countries
- also known as high-input agriculture
- relies on large inputs of capital and energy (in the form of fossil fuels) to make and run machinery,
purchase seed, irrigate crops, and produce agrochemicals such as commercial inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides
- produces high yields (the amount of food produced per unit of land), which allows forests and other
natural areas to remain wild instead of being converted to agricultural land
- productivity of industrialized agriculture comes with costs, such as soil degradation and increased
pesticide resistance in agricultural pests

2. Subsistence agriculture
- in developing countries
- production of enough food to feed oneself and one’s family with little left over to sell or reserve for hard
times
- also requires large inputs of energy, but from humans and draft animals rather than from fossil fuels

a. Shifting cultivation

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 o short periods of cultivation are followed by longer periods of fallow (land being left uncultivated),
during which the land reverts to forest
o supports relatively small populations
b. Slash-and-burn agriculture
o involves clearing small patches of tropical forest to plant crops
o land-intensive because tropical soils lose their productivity quickly when they are cultivated
o also known as Primitive Farming
o farmers using slash-and-burn agriculture must move from one area of forest to another every 3
years or so
c. Nomadic herding
o livestock is supported by land too arid for successful crop growth, is a similarly land-intensive
form of subsistence agriculture
o Nomadic herders must continually move their livestock to find adequate food for the animals
d. Intensive subsistence farming
o farmers cultivate a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour. Climate, with large
number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permits growing of more than one crop annually on
the same plot.
Intercropping
o involves growing a variety of plants on the same field simultaneously
o when certain crops are grown together, they produce higher yields than when they are grown as
monocultures
o higher yields is because different pests are found on each crop, and intercropping discourages
the build-up of any single pest species to economically destructive levels
o Polyculture is a type of intercropping in which several kinds of plants that mature at different
times are planted together. In polyculture practiced in the tropics, fast- and slow-maturing crops
are often planted together so that different crops can be harvested throughout the year

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Environmental Impacts of Industrialized agriculture

1. The agricultural use of fossil fuels and pesticides produces air pollution
2. Untreated animal wastes and agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides cause water pollution
- reduces biological diversity
- harms fisheries
- leads to outbreaks of nuisance species
3. Many insects, weeds, and disease-causing organisms have developed or are developing resistance to pesticides
- pesticide resistance forces farmers to apply progressively larger quantities of pesticides
- pesticide residues contaminate our food supply and reduce the number and diversity of beneficial
microorganisms in the soil
- fishes and other aquatic organisms are sometimes killed by pesticide runoff into lakes, rivers, and
estuaries
4. Land degradation
- Reduction in the potential productivity of land
- soil erosion, which is exacerbated by large-scale mechanized operations
- mechanized operations cause a decline in soil fertility, and the
- eroded sediments damage water quality
- salinization (salting)of soil from improper irrigation methods
- habitat fragmentation results from Clearing grasslands and forests and draining wetlands to grow crops

Suggested Solutions to Agricultural problems

1. Sustainable agriculture
- uses methods that maintain soil productivity and a healthy ecological balance while minimizing long-term
impacts
2. Genetic engineering
- the manipulation of genes to produce a particular trait, can produce more nutritious crops or crop plants
that are resistant to pests, diseases, or drought.

V. APPLICATION
The issue on undernutrition boils down to the country’s ability to produce enough food for the people. Food source are
basically from soil. Grains, vegetables and fruits grow from it while livestock to whom we source out meat, also feeds on
grains and grasses. With so many issues affecting food production like ill effects pesticides to the environment, global
warming, industrialization and shortage of food itself, you must stop for a while and think how you may contribute in providing
solutions to these problems.

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 VI. ASSESSMENT
Identification (10 points)

1. This happens when the amount of nutrients exceeds the amount required for normal growth, development, and
metabolism often leading to accumulation of fat causing metabolic diseases. _____________________________
2. This is the disruption of food intake or eating patterns because of lack of money and other resources.
________________________________
3. It is a large-scale, intensive production of crops and animals, often involving chemical fertilizers on crops or the
routine, harmful use of antibiotics in animals. _____________________________
4. This is used to express the heat output of an organism and the fuel or energy value of food.
____________________________
5. According to the latest FAO report, this is the region that has the highest prevalence of undernutrition.
________________________
6. This is also known as Primitive Farming. This is with high prevalence in the Philippines.
_____________________________
7. This type of farming involves people migrating along with their animals from one place to another in search of
fodder for their animals. _______________________________
8. This involves growing a variety of plants on the same field simultaneously. _____________________________
9. This activity results from Clearing grasslands and forests and draining wetlands to grow crops.
__________________________
10. An example of this is the manipulation of rice DNA to make it harvestable in shorter period of time and making it
pest resistant. ____________________________

Computation (10 points). Show all step-by-step computations

1. Calculate the calorie intake of a 48-year old female whose weight is 280 pounds, 60 inches tall and lives a
sedentary lifestyle.

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 VII. RUBRICS
Rubric for Activity 2.

Graph-making

Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced

1 pts 2 pts 3 pts 4 pts

Graph Title There was no title. There was a title There was a title There was a title
included, but it was not included at the top of included at the top of
at the top of the graph. the graph, but it does the graph. The title
not match the data on matches the data on
the graph. the graph.

Graph Labels There were no labels. There were labels The labels were The labels were
included, but not in the included in the right included in the right
right place. place, but they did not place. The labels match
match the data on the the data on the graph.
graph.

Graph scale There was no scale. There was a scale The scale was included The scale was included
included, but it was not in the right place, but it in the right place. The
in the right place. was not appropriate to scale was appropriate
display the data to display the data
collected. collected.

Display of Data There was no data The data was The data displayed The data displayed
displayed. displayed, but did not matched the data matched the data
match the data collected, but was collected. The graph
collected. difficult to read. was easy to read.

Graph Appearance Appears messy and Neat and relatively Neat and relatively Very well designed,
poorly made. attractive. attractive. A ruler was neat, and attractive. A
used to make the graph ruler was used to make
very readable. the graph very
readable. Colors that
go well together are
used to make the graph
attractive.

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Graph Interpretation

Poor Fair Good

1 pts 2 pts 3 pts

Relationship of Data NOT able to determine or Able to determine or Able to determine and
analyze the relationship of analyze the relationship of analyze the relationship of
the data. the data. the data.

Trends NOT able to describe or Able to either describe or Able to both describe and
evaluate the trend of the evaluate the trend of the evaluate the trend of the
data. data but not both. data.

Correlation and Causation NOT able to discuss if there Able to discuss if there is Able to discuss if there is
is correlation or causation or correlation or causation but correlation or causation and
predict if further studies not able to predict if further able to predict if further
should be conducted. studies should be studies should be
conducted. conducted.

Scientific Explanation NOT able to apply Able to apply knowledge Able to apply knowledge
knowledge from the lesson from the lesson to the data from the lesson to the data
to the data in order to offer a but not able offer a scientific and offer a scientific
scientific explanation for the explanation for the data. explanation for the data.
data.

Results NOT able to compare the Able to compare the results NOT able to compare the
results for multiple sets of for multiple sets of data with results for multiple sets of
data. difficulty. data with no difficulty.

Conclusions NOT able to explain results Able to either explain results Able to thoroughly explain
or deduce an outcome. or deduce and outcome but the results and deduce an
not both. outcome.

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 CHAPTER 16
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

I. Introduction

'Biological diversity' means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species,

Biodiversity is a compound word derived from ‘biological diversity’ and therefore is considered to have the same meaning.

The variety of life at every hierarchical level and spatial scale of biological organisations: genes within populations,
populations within species, species within communities, communities within landscapes, landscapes within biomes, and
biomes within the biosphere.

II. Objectives of the Lesson

On completion of the module, the learner should be able to:

1. Define biological diversity and conservation.
2. Distinguish among species richness, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
3. Give important ecosystem services provided by biological diversity.
4. Differentiate and give examples of extinct, threatened, endangered species.
5. Enumerate the impacts of human activities on biodiversity.

III. Lesson Proper

Lesson 1. What Is Biodiversity?

• Biodiversity is being lost at an alarming rate which poses a risk to the provision of ecosystem services.
• The Convention of Biological Diversity provides a global legal framework for action on biodiversity It is a
key instrument to promote sustainable development and tackle the global loss of biodiversity.
• Biodiversity can be measured through the use of quantitative indicators, although no single unified
approach exists.
• Biodiversity also underpins ecosystem function and the provision of ecosystem services.

The term biodiversity encompasses variety of biological life at more than one scale. It is not only the variety
of species (both plant and animal) but also the variety of genes within those species and the variety of ecosystems in which
the species reside.
In the context of conservation science, the term ‘biodiversity’, a contraction of 'biological diversity', is relatively young.
‘Biological diversity’ in its current sense began to be used in the early 1980s, with interest in the concept elevated by
publications such as ‘Limits to Growth’ which discussed the implications of unrestricted population and economic growth on
the environment. Use of the term has ranged from a focus on species richness (number of different species in a
location/sample) to greater emphasis on ecological and genetic diversity .
The specific origin of the word ‘biodiversity’ is often attributed to W.G.Rosen in 1985 during planning for the ‘National
Forum on Biodiversity’ which took place in America later that year .The proceedings of the forum were published by E.
O.Wilson in 1988 in a book entitled ‘Biodiversity’, which is likely to have initiated the widespread use of the word.
Biodiversity was used more in political forums than scientific ones, progressing over time to become a term used to
symbolize the concept of the "richness of life on earth". Biodiversity does not exclusively refer to species richness. It also
encompasses diversity on a wider scale meaning that differences in the genetic make-up of population is important.

Endemism has a key role to play in this context because endemic species are restricted to small areas and provide
pockets of particularly high genetic diversity.

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 The concept of biodiversity continues to evolve and more recently it has been included in the idea of ecosystem
services in that it is a form of ‘natural capital’ and thus underpins the functioning of ecosystems . Biodiversity itself is not
generally considered an ecosystem service but rather supports environmental function.

Lesson 2: Importance of Biodiversity

The increasing use of the term biodiversity is being driven by the fact that, in an ecological context, global
biodiversity itself is being lost at an alarming rate. Although it has been shown that the significant global biodiversity loss
that has occurred over the time frame of human existence has not stopped global human population increase there is clear
evidence that biodiversity loss can affect the well-being of society and have negative economic impacts
Biodiversity loss therefore threatens the provision of goods and services provided by ecosystems. Reduction in
biodiversity can affect decomposition rates, vegetation biomass production and, in the marine environment, affect fish
stocks. It is predicted that a reduction in marine productivity means that fisheries will not be able to meet the demands of a
growing global population. In addition to the gradual decline in environmental function linked to reductions in biodiversity, it
has been suggested that there is a risk that at some point a threshold will be crossed and a catastrophe may occur. Research
has highlighted that biodiversity loss could rival the problems of carbon dioxide increases as one of the major drivers of
ecosystem change in the 21st century.
Whether from environmental collapse or gradual decline in function, our ability to adapt to a changing world may
be considerably reduced if the environment on which we rely does not contain sufficient biodiversity to evolve and
continue to support our needs.

Environmental Agreements
In response to the current rate of biodiversity loss, and on the grounds that biodiversity is a common concern for
humankind, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was opened for signature in 1992. As of June 2013, it has
been ratified by 193 parties (governments). The CBD provides a global legal framework for action on biodiversity . It is
considered a key instrument for sustainable development.

Its three main goals are:

1. The conservation of biological diversity;
2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity;
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

The CBD’s governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP). It holds periodic meetings to review progress
on the Convention targets, and advance its implementation. To support implementation of the CBD, the United Nations
General Assembly declared 2011-2020 the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity and adopted the Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity 2011-2020. The Strategy is a ten-year framework for action adopted by signatory countries in 2010 in Nagoya,
Japan. It builds on the vision that “by 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining
ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people” The Strategy calls for all
countries and stakeholders to effectively implement the three objectives of the CBD by establishing national and regional
targets, feeding into the five strategic goals and 20 global targets (collectively known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets)
outlined by the Strategy. The primary framework for action set forth by the CBD is the ecosystem approach, an integrated
strategy for the management of biodiversity resources.
Biodiversity is also at the centre of a number of other Conventions e.g. the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS),
the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Plant Treaty), The Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is also the subject of a number of associated
Protocols such as the Specially Protected Areas Protocol and the Cartagena Protocol.
A new platform, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES),
was established by the international community in 2012 and is open to all United Nations member countries. It is an
independent intergovernmental body committed to providing scientifically-sound assessments on the state of the planet’s
biodiversity in order to support informed decision-making on biodiversity and ecosystem services conservation and use
around the world.

Biodiversity Monitoring
Over the last 30 years, different definitions of biodiversity have been used. As early as 1992, the year the Convention
on Biological Diversity was opened for signature at the Rio Earth Summit, it was noted that the definitions of biodiversity
are ‘‘as diverse as the biological resource’’. While the CBD definition is commonly accepted, the variety of definitions of

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biodiversity is particularly relevant when it comes to the scientific measurement of biodiversity. For the purposes of detailed
analysis, and the creation of indicators to measure or monitor trends, exactly how biodiversity is defined will influence what
is measured. Biodiversity indicators aim at using quantitative data to measure aspects of biodiversity, ecosystem condition,
services, and drivers of change. These advances understanding of how biodiversity is changing over time and space, why
it is changing, and what the consequences of the changes are for ecosystems, their services, and human well-being. The
huge variety of elements included in the definition of biodiversity results in a varied set of methodologies to measure the
natural environment. There is no unified metric for quantitative measurement. The variety of metrics employed include
• species richness (number of species);
• population number (number of genetically distinct populations of a particular species defined by analysis
of a specific element of its genetic makeup)
• genetic diversity (The variation in the amount of genetic information within and among individuals of a
population, a species, an assemblage, or a community;
• species evenness (measurement of how evenly individuals are distributed among species) and
• phenotypic (organism characteristics) variance

Values of Biodiversity
The living organisms on earth are of great diversity, living in diverse habitats and possessing diverse qualities and
are vital to human existence providing food, shelter, clothing’s, medicines etc.
1. Productive values. Biodiversity produces a number of products harvested from nature and sold in commercial
markets. Indirectly it provides economic benefits to people which include water quality soil protection, equalization
of climate, environmental monitoring, scientific research, recreation etc.
2. Consumptive value. The consumptive value can be assigned to goods such as fuel woods, leaves, forest products
etc. which may be consumed locally and do not figure in national and international market.
3. Social value. The loss of biodiversity directly influences the social life of the country possibly through influencing
ecosystem functions (energy flow and biogeochemical cycle). This be easily understood by observing detrimental
effects of global warming and acid rain which cause an unfavorable alteration in logical processes.
4. Aesthetic value. Aesthetic values such as refreshing fragrance of the flowers, taste of berries, softness of mossed,
melodious songs of birds, etc. compel the human beings to preserve them. The earth’s natural beauty with its colour
and hues, thick forest, and graceful beasts has inspired the human beings from their date of birth to take necessary
steps for its maintenance. Similarly, botanical and zoological gardens are the means of biodiversity conservation
and are of aesthetic values.
5. Legal values. Since earth is homeland of all living organisms, all have equal right to coexist on the surface of earth
with all benefits. Unless some legal value is attached to biodiversity, it will not be possible to protect the rapid
extinction of species.
6. Ethical value. Biodiversity must be seen in the light of holding ethical value. Since man is the most intelligent
amongst the living organisms, it should be prime responsibility and moral obligation of man to preserve and
conserve other organisms which will directly or indirectly favour the existence of the man.
7. Ecological value. Biodiversity holds great ecological value because it is indispensable to maintain the ecological
balance. Any disturbance in the delicately fabricated ecological balance maintained by different organisms, will lead
to severe problems, which may threaten the survival of human beings.
8. Economic value. Biodiversity has great economic value because economic development depends upon efficient
and economic management of biotic resources.

In the day to day life, human beings are maintaining their lifestyle at the sacrifice of surrounding species which come
from diversity of plants and animals struggling for their existence. So, it is highly essential for the human beings to take care
of their surrounding species and make optimum use of their service, for better economic development. Thus, it is rightly
told, survival of the man depends upon the survival of the biosphere.

Uses of Biodiversity
:
Biodiversity has the following uses for the development humanity:
• It provides fibers, sources for the preparation of clothes.
• It provides different types of oil seeds for the preparation of oils.
• It provides new varieties of rice, potato etc. through the process of hybridization.
• It provides different drugs and medicines which are based on different plant products.

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 • It is very essential for natural pest control, maintenance of population of various species, pollination by insects
and birds, nutrient cycling, conservation and purification of water, formation of soil etc.

Threats to Biodiversity

Biodiversity is considered as a reservoir of resources to be used for the manufacture of food, medicine, industrial products,
etc. But with an increased demand of rapid population growth, biodiversity is gradually depleting. A number of plants” and
animal species have already become extinct and many are endangered.

The different factors responsible for causing threat to biodiversity are as follows:
1. Habitat destruction. The primary cause of loss of biodiversity is habitat loss or destruction which is resulted due
to the large industrial and commercial activities associated with agriculture, irrigation, construction of dams, mining,
fishing etc.
2. Habitat fragmentation. With increased population, the habitats are fragmented into pieces by roads, fields, canals,
power lines, towns etc. The isolated fragment of habitats restricts the potential of species for dispersal and
colonization. In addition, the habitat fragmentation also brings about microclimatic changes in light, temperature,
wind etc.
3. Pollution. The most dreaded factor inducing loss of biodiversity is environmental pollution which include air
pollution, Water pollution, industrial pollution, pollution due to chemical Pastes, pesticides radioactive materials etc.
4. Over exploitation. The natural resources are over exploited to meet growing rural poverty, intensive technological
growth and globalization of economy. All these factors together may be responsible for the extinction of a number
of species.
5. Introduction of exotic species. Introduction of exotic species thru: Horticulture, European colonization or
accidental transport. It is seen that some exotic species may kill or eat the native species thereby causing its
extinction.
6. Diseases. Since the animals are more vulnerable to infection, the anthropological activities may increase the
incidence of diseases in wild species, leading to their extinction.
7. Shifting or Jhum cultivation. Shifting or Jhum cultivation by poor tribal people greatly affects the forest structure
which is a store house of biodiversity.
8. Poaching of wild life. A number of wildlife species are becoming extinct due to poaching and hunting
.
Lesson 3: Types of Biodiversity

There are three interrelated hierarchical levels of biodiversity namely, genetic diversity, species
diversity and community or ecosystem diversity.
1. Genetic diversity. It describes the variation in the number and types of genes as well as chromosomes present in
different species. The magnitude of variation in genes of a species increases with increase in size and environmental
parameters of the habitat.
The genetic variation arises by gene and chromosome mutation in individuals and in sexually reproducing organisms
and it is spread in the population by recombination of genetic materials during cell division after sexual reproduction.

Genetic diversity has the following importance:

a. It helps in speciation or evolution of new species;
b. It is useful in adaptation to changes in environmental conditions;
c. It is important for agricultural productivity and development.

2. Species diversity. It describes the variety in the number and richness of the spices with in a region. The species
richness may be defined as the number of species per unit area. The richness of a species tells about the extent of
biodiversity of a site and provides a means for comparing different sites.
The species richness depends largely on climatic conditions. The number of individuals of different species with in a
region represents species evenness or species equitability. The product species richness and species evenness give
species diversity of a region. When a species is confined entirely to a particular area, it is termed as endemic species.

3. Ecosystem diversity. It describes the assemblage and Interaction of spices living together and the physical
environment a given area. It relates varieties of habitats, biotic communities, ecological processes in biosphere. It

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 also tells about the diversity within the ecosystem. It is referred as Land escape diversity because it includes
placement and size of various ecosystems.
For example, the landscapes like grass lands, deserts, mountains etc. show ecosystem diversity. The ecosystem
diversity is due to diversity of niches, trophic levels and ecological processes like nutrient cycling, food webs, energy
flow, role of dominant species and various related biotic interactions. Such type of diversity can generate more
productive and stable ecosystems or communities capable of tolerating various types of stresses e.g. drought, flood
etc.
According to Whittaker (1965), the community diversities are of three types:
1) α-Diversity:
• It tells the species diversity in a given community.
• It depends upon species richness and evenness.
2) β-Diversity:
• It describes a range of communities due to replacement of species which arises due to the
3) γ -Diversity:
• It describes diversity of habitat over a total land escape or geographical area.

Biogeographical regions are:

1. Trans Himalayas
2. Gangetic plain
3. Desert
4. Semiarid zone
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan peninsula
7. North eastern zone
8. Coastal lands
9. Himalayas
10. Islands

India is one of the twelve mega diversity nations of the world due to the following reasons:
1. It has 7.3% of the global fauna and 10.88% of global flora as per the data collected by Ministry of Environment and
forest.
2. It has 350 different mammals, 1200 species of birds- 453 different reptiles, 182 amphibians and 45,000 plants spices.
3. It has 50,000 known species of insects which include 13,000 butterflies and moths.
4. It has 10 different biogeographical regions and 25 biotic provinces having varieties of lands and species.
5. In addition to geographical distribution, geological events in the land mass provide high level of
6. Several crops arose in the country and spread throughout the world.
7. There is wide variety of domestic animals like cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, horses etc.
8. The marine biota includes sea weeds, fishes, crustaceans, molluses, corals, reptiles etc.
9. There are a number of hot spots (namely Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North Eastern hills etc.).

Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystems are all of the animals, plants, and micro-organisms as well as physical aspects of the area. For
example, a desert ecosystem not only includes its plants and animals, but also the sand and rocks. Marine ecosystems
can be very complex and vary considerably depending upon the area being examined. The ecosystem being studied
may be a coral reef or a hot vent current. It could be an intertidal zone, lagoon, or the deep sea. An ecosystem can be
a patch of lichen on a rock or an entire desert. Given the amount of sunlight and rain and possibilities for shelter under
the enclosed canopy, rainforest ecosystems contain the most biodiversity on the planet.
Lesson 4. Biodiversity Conservation

What is biodiversity conservation?

Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems. It does not only encompass
the ecological processes as we can see them, but also holds the key to the evolutionary processes that sustain life
and the cultural relationships that nurture the spirit. Biodiversity is being depleted by the loss of habitat, fragmentation
of habitat, over exploitation of resources, human sponsored ecosystems, climatic changes, pollution invasive exotic spices,

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diseases, shifting cultivation, poaching of wild life etc. Since the human beings are enjoying all the benefits from biodiversity,
they should take proper care for the preservation of biodiversity in all its form and good health for the future generation i.e.,
the human being should prevent the degradation and destruction of the habitats thereby maintaining the biodiversity at its
optimum level.
Conservation of biodiversity is protection, upliftment and scientific management of biodiversity so as to maintain it
at its threshold level and derive sustainable benefits for the present and future generation. In other words, conservation of
bio-diversity is the proper management of the biosphere by human beings in such a way that it gives maximum benefits for
the present generation and also develops its potential so as to meet the needs of the future generations.

Objectives of Biodiversity Conservation

1. To maintain essential ecological processes and life supporting systems.
2. To preserve the diversity of species.
3. To make sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems.

Strategies for Conservation of Biodiversity

The following strategies should be undertaken in order to conserve biodiversity:

1. All the possible varieties (old or new) of food, forage and timber plants, livestock, agriculture animals and microbes
should be conserved.
2. All the economically important organisms in protected areas should be identified and conserved.
3. Critical habitats for each species should be identified and safeguarded.
4. Priority should be given to preserve unique ecosystems.
5. There should be sustainable utilization of resources.
6. International trade in wild life should be highly regulated.
7. The poaching and hunting of wildlife should be prevented as far as practicable.
8. Care should be taken for the development of reserves and protected areas.
9. Efforts should be made to reduce the level of pollutants in the environment.
10. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity and its importance for the living organisms.
11. Priority should be given in wildlife conservation program to endangered species over vulnerable species and to
vulnerable species over rare species.
12. The habitats of migratory birds should be protected by bilateral and multilateral agreement.
13. The over exploitation of useful products of wild life should be prevented.
14. The useful animals, plants and their wild relatives should be protected both in their natural habitat (in-situ) and in
zoological botanical gardens (ex-situ).
15. Efforts should be made for setting up of National parks and wild life sanctuaries to safeguard the genetic diversity
and their continuing evolution.
16. Environmental laws should be strictly followed.

Two Types of Conservation Methods

A. In situ conservation is the conservation of species in their natural habitat or natural ecosystem is known as in situ
conservation. In the process, the natural surrounding or ecosystem is protected and maintained so that all the
constituent species (known or unknown) are conserved and benefited. The factors which are detrimental to the
existence of species concerned are eliminated by suitable mechanism.

Advantages
• It is a cheap and convenient way of conserving biological diversity.
• It offers a way to preserve a large number of organisms simultaneously, known or unknown to us.
• The existence in natural ecosystem provides opportunity to the living organisms to adjust to environmental
conditions and to evolve in to a better life form.
• The only disadvantage of in situ conservation is that it requires large space of earth which is often difficult because
of growing demand for space.
• The protection and management of biodiversity through in situ conservation involve certain specific areas known
as protected areas which include national parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves.
• 1. Protected areas:

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 • The protected areas are biogeographical areas where biological diversity along with natural and cultural resources
are protected, maintained and managed through legal and administrative measures. The demarcation of
biodiversity in each area is determined on the basis of climatic and physiological conditions.
• In these areas, hunting, firewood collection, timber harvesting etc. are prohibited so that the wild plants and
animals can grow and multiply freely without any hindrance. Some protected areas are: Cold desert (Ladakh and
Spiti), Hot desert (Thar), Saline Swampy area (Sunderban and Rann of Kutch), Tropical moist deciduous forest
(Western Ghats and north East) etc. Protected areas include national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.
• There are 37,000 protected areas throughout the world. As per World Conservation Monitoring Centre, India has
581 protected areas, national parks and sanctuaries.

National parks are the small reserves meant for the protection of wild life and their natural habitats. These are
maintained by government. The area of national parks ranges between 0.04 to 3162 km. The boundaries are well
demarcated and circumscribed. The activities like grazing forestry, cultivation and habitat manipulation are not permitted
in these areas.

Sanctuaries are the areas where only wild animals (fauna) are present. The activities like harvesting of timbers,
collection of forest products, cultivation of lands etc. are permitted as long as these do not interfere with the project.
That is, controlled biotic interference is permitted in sanctuaries, which allows visiting of tourists for recreation.

Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose protected areas with boundaries circumscribed by legislation.
The main aim of biosphere reserve is to preserve genetic diversity in representative ecosystems by protecting wild
animals, traditional life style of inhabitant and domesticated plant/ animal genetic resources. These are scientifically
managed allowing only the tourists to visit.

Importance of Biosphere Reserves

a. These help in the restoration of degraded ecosystem.
b. The main role of these reserves is to preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems, and habitats without
disturbing the habitants.
c. These maintain cultural, social and ecologically sustainable economic developments.
d. These support education and research in various ecological aspects,

Some Important Biosphere Reserves

• Simlipal, (Orissa), Sunderban (West Bengal), Kanha (M.P Kaziranga (Assam) etc. The biosphere reserve network
was introduced by UNESCO 1971.

B. Ex situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plants and animals under partially or wholly
controlled conditions in specific areas like zoo, gardens, nurseries etc. That is, the conservation of selected plants and
animals in selected areas outside their natural habitat is known as ex-situ conservation. The stresses on living
organisms due to competition for food, water, space etc. can be avoided by ex-situ conservation there by providing
conditions necessary for a secure life and breeding.

Why should we conserve biodiversity?

“No man is an island.” We rely upon each other. It is a simple fact. If the food source of a frog becomes extinct,
then the frog will die. One of the theories for the recent mass disappearance of amphibians is the poisoning of insects
from pesticides. Another theory is the sensitivity of their skins to the increased strength of ultraviolet rays from the
thinning of the ozone layer. Either way, the snake that relies upon the frog as its only or primary food source, will starve
to death.

Diversity makes species resistant. If the species is reduced to a small number, then inbreedin g will compromise
its genetic diversity. It will not be able to maintain in the face of stressors like disease or compromised air or water
quality and it will face imminent extinction.
An example of the significance of genetic diversity to preserving a species is the inheritance of genetic mutations
within a family. Many diseases are caused by genetic mutations. It is estimated that up to 40 percent of br east cancers
in men are related to mutations of a certain gene. If a man inherits mutations from both his maternal and paternal sides,
he is at a higher risk of developing breast cancer. If, however, only one of his parents pass the genetic mutation, he has

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a higher probability of not developing breast cancer. The smaller the gene pool, the more likely the species will not be
able to resist the onslaught of diseases or other stressors and it will die out.
Another well-known example was the widespread devastation of all of the old vineyards in Europe in the 1850s
when one tiny pest, the phyloxxera was introduced from America. American vines were resistant to the tiny root louse,
but the European vitis vinifera had no tolerance to it. The only salvation was cloning the vitis vinifera, generally
recognized as producing superior wine grapes to an American rootstock. That is the only way the vitis vinifera can
survive in modern times when the transportation of species across the globe cannot be well -regulated. Many grape
growers look to hybrid plants that combine the smooth flavor of the best wine grapes with hardiness traits of plants that
can withstand more extreme temperatures and have developed a resistance to common fungi and pests. In simple
terms, genetic diversity gives a species a fighting chance to resist threats. Biologists call this survival
metamorphosis The Red Queen Hypothesis, after the character in Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland, who must run
continually to stay in the same place. Organisms must continually evolve, that is, stay one step ahead of their enemies,
or they will be destroyed by predators or diseases.

Biodiverse Ecosystems Support Life on All Levels

Healthy ecosystems contribute to:
1. clean air and climate regulation through carbon sequestration and gas exchange
2. clean water through filtration
3. rich soil through decomposing and cycling organic matter
4. oil detoxification ad maintenance of soil structure through filtration and root stability
5. plant growth control through symbiotic relationships between insects and companion plants
6. food source for native animals

A healthy relationship between insects and plants allows for pollination, necessary for many fruit-bearing trees and
other food sources. An intact ecosystem provides shelter for the animals living there. Humans also rely on healthy
ecosystems to provide our medicines, fuel and energy, fiber for textiles and materials for shelter and even the oxygen
we need to breathe.

The Value of Biodiversity for Our Society

Oftentimes in discussing the spiritual value of the environment to a people we think in abstract terms like
aboriginal tribes reacting to government reconstruction of waterways that destroy the very essence of their creation
myth. We can sympathize without truly identifying with what that means. We might know vaguely that we really need
to get out of the city for a while, maybe visit our childhood home and family where we can smell the pine trees and hear
birdsong, or at least go to the park and see flowers and grass rather than just concrete and traffic. The values of our
native environment are endemic in us and we seldom separate them as defining who we are. Traveling to other lands
and seeing the different ways people live can put this in perspective.
A culture has its own music, its own lens, its own language for interpreting phenomenon. When we are out of
our element, we can become disassociated, much like the proverbial “fish out of water.” What if we couldn’t go
home? What impact does it have to one living in a forest if the forest is cut down? What impact to one living in a fishing
village if there are no more fish? And across the board, what would life be like if we could adapt to survive on one food
source, poor air quality, water unsafe to swim in? What if we no longer had the opportunity to watch eagles soar, hear
the calls of turkey mating, peepers singing or the hoot owl at night? We live in a world of rich diversity and
abundance. What if that diversity and abundance were destroyed? Who would we be?

Essential Learning
The Red Queen Hypothesis
A complex variation of genes allows organisms to adapt to changes as well. Many are too familiar with the
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a super-strain bacterium that has developed a resistance to the
most commonly used antibiotics. It is proving very difficult to control. In the United States, five to ten percent of those
hospitalized become infected with a disease contracted within the hospital and of these patients, approximat ely 99,000
people die annually because the bacterium has evolved to become stronger than the antibiotics available. Genetic
variation allows new species to evolve in response to threats such as antibiotics as in the case of the MRSA, or in
species we are more sympathetic to, like humans, genes can adapt in response to threats like disease, predators,
parasites and hopefully…pollution and climate change.

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IV. Assessment

Quiz no.1: IDENTIFICATION (10 PTS). Specific Instructions: Identify the word or group of words that best describes the
following statements. Write your answer after each number.

1 It refers to the variety in the number and richness of the spices with in a
region
2 It refers to the variety of species inhabiting land, air and aquatic systems
on Earth.

3 It refers to the conservation of selected plants and animals in selected

areas outside their natural habitat .

4 What method refers to the conservation of species in their natural habitat

or natural ecosystem?

5 It describes the variation in the number and types of genes as well as

chromosomes present in different species

6 It refers to the measurement of how evenly individuals are distributed

among species.

7 These are areas where only wild animals (fauna) are present.

8 These are conservation sites classified as small reserves meant for the
protection of wild life and their natural habitats.

9 It is referred to as land escape diversity because it includes placement and

size of various ecosystems.

10 It refers to the protection, upliftment and scientific management of

biodiversity to maintain its threshold level and derive sustainable benefits
for the present and future generation.

Quiz no.2: Alternative Response (10 points)

Specific Instructions: Read each statement carefully on biodiversity concepts and conservation, then
Write A- if the statement is correct , and write B- if the statement is incorrect. Write the letter of the answer after each
number.

_______1. Landscape diversity is also described as the assemblage and Interaction of spices living
together and the physical environment a given area
_______2. Biodiversity helps the species resistant to imminent extinction due to diseases.
_______3. Healthy ecosystems contribute to production of more alternative energy resources
_______4. Genetic diversity gives a species a fighting chance to resist threats .
_______5. National parks are the small reserves meant for the protection of wild life and their natural
habitats.
_______6. National parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves are also considered as Protected
Areas.
_______7. Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose protected areas with boundaries
circumscribed by legislation.
_______8. Biodiversity exclusively refer to species richness.
_______9. The main role of protected areas is to preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems, and habitats
without disturbing the habitants.
_______10. The only disadvantage of in ex-situ conservation is that it requires large space of Earth
which is often difficult because of growing demand for space.

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Research Paper (60 total points)- refer to the rubric below
Specific Instructions:
1. Make a brief analysis paper based on various BIODIVERSITY THREATS.
2. Follow the given format. Write a brief paragraph for each part.

I. Title/ Issue/Concern
II. Discussion
1. Introduction: set the issue by providing context for the situation.
2 Challenges: discuss the key problem and factors.
3. Solutions: mitigations, interventions or actions and resolutions to the
identified problems and factors.
4. Benefits: recap the solution’s top advantages – why it was the right choice.
5. Results: the positive outcome arising from the solutions and benefits.
III. Conclusion
3 .Encode your analysis paper with references. Use Times Roman , 12’’ 1 inch margin all sides
4. Refer to the rubric for the criteria:
TRAITS VERY GOOD (15 POINTS) GOOD (10 FAIR ( 8 POOR (5 POINTS)
POINTS) POINTS)
Focus & There is one clear, well There is one clear,
Details focused topic. Main ideas are well focused topic. There is one The topic and main
clear and are well supported Main ideas are clear topic. ideas are not clear.
by detailed and accurate but are not well Main ideas are
information. supported by somewhat clear.
detailed information
Organization The introduction is
inviting, states the main The introduction The introduction There is no clear
topic, and provides states states introduction,
an overview of the the main topic and the main topic. A structure,
paper. Information is provides an conclusion is or conclusion.
relevant and presented overview included.
in a logical order. The of the paper.
conclusion is strong. A conclusion is
included.
Purpose The purpose The purpose The purpose
of writing is very clear. of writing is of writing is The purpose of
The extensive somewhat somewhat Writing is not
knowledge and/or clear. The clear .The clear.
experience with the knowledge knowledge
topic is/are evident. and/or experience and/or
with the topic is/are experience with
evident. the topic is/are
limited.
Word Choice Uses vivid Uses vivid Uses words Uses a
words and phrases. The words and phrases. that communicate limited vocabulary.
choice and placement The clearly, but the Jargon or clichés
of words seems choice and writing may
accurate, natural, and placement lacks variety. be present and
not forced. of words is detract
inaccurate from the meaning.
at times and/or
seems
overdone.

V. Suggested Additional References

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GK_vRtHJZu4
Philippine Seas, a documentary by Atom Araullo | Full Episode (with English subtitles)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxqgm-ruiW8
Biodiversity Loss - A Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKld7o6CISg
https://ph.video.search.yahoo.com/search/video?fr=yfp-
t&p=biodiversity+and+conservation#id=1&vid=fc21e0f81ce85d1a6dd31dd09763f8e6&action=view

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 CHAPTER 17
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTES
I. Introduction

More than 6 billion people live on Earth Each person needs and consumes resources. As we consume resources, we
also produce wastes. The natural cycling of matter contributes greatly in solving our waste disposal problems. The
organic wastes decay and undergo chemical changes. The products of these changes mix with the soil, water or air.
Although the biological degradation of garbage takes a long time, garbage production was not considered a major
environmental problem many years ago like it is now. At present, and in many places, the garbage problem is being
felt.

II. Objectives
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Distinguish between municipal and non- municipal solid waste.
2. Summarize how source reduction, reuse, and recycling help reduce the volume of solid waste.
3. Characterize and give examples and sources of hazardous wastes
4. Identify ways of disposal and management of hazardous wastes.

III. Lesson Proper

Lesson 1: What Is Solid Waste?

Solid waste is a general term used to describe objects or particles that accumulate at the location where they are produced.
Due to the large variety of items that are considered solid waste, the type of waste is often divided into two categories. The
categories of solid waste are referred to as municipal solid waste and non-municipal solid waste, and these two types of
waste vary by where the waste originates.

Municipal Solid Waste

Municipal solid waste refers to any non-liquid waste that is created by an individual person, household, small business, or
institution, such as a school or hospital. This type of waste is commonly called trash or garbage and includes everyday
items, things that are broken, food that has spoiled, or simply any item a person no longer needs or wants. The most
common items disposed of as municipal solid waste are paper, yard trimmings, food, plastics, metals, rubbers, and textiles.
In recent years, the amount of electronic waste, also known as e-waste, has increased drastically as people become more
reliant on electronics, such as computers and cell phones that are replaced and disposed of frequently.
Based on the definition of municipal solid waste, the waste that you dispose of every day would fall into this category.
Although it is necessary to dispose of items, the shocking fact is that 25 million tons of the total amount of municipal solid
waste is something that is valuable and important for human survival - food! Food accounts for a large amount of waste
each year.

Non-municipal solid waste is any non-liquid waste that is created due to the production of a product. Although products
can sometimes turn into municipal solid waste themselves when they break or are done being used, non-municipal solid
waste refers to any waste that is created while the product is being manufactured and before it reaches the consumer. The
amount of non-municipal solid waste fluctuates more than municipal solid waste because it is influenced by changes in
consumer demand and consumption.
Non-Municipal Waste means that portion of non-recycled Solid Waste defined as Industrial Solid Waste and Liquid
Waste as the same may be amended or supplemented from time to time, that may be processed at the Facility under
applicable permits, licenses and approvals.

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 Composition of Municipal Wastes

The composition of municipal solid waste varies greatly from municipality to municipality and it changes significantly with
time. In municipalities which have a well-developed waste recycling system, the waste stream mainly consists of intractable
wastes such as plastic film and non-recyclable packaging materials. At the start of the 20th century, the majority of domestic
waste (53%) in the UK consisted of coal ash from open fires. In developed areas without significant recycling activity it
predominantly includes food wastes, market wastes, yard wastes, plastic containers and product packaging materials, and
other miscellaneous solid wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources Most definitions of
municipal solid waste do not include industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, medical waste, radioactive waste or sewage
sludge. Waste collection is performed by the municipality within a given area.
The term residual waste relates to waste left from household sources containing materials that have not been separated
out or sent for processing.

Classification of Wastes

1. Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper -most can be recycled, although some difficult
to compost plant material may be excluded.
2. Recyclable materials: paper, cardboard, glass, bottles, jars, tin cans, aluminum cans, aluminum foil, metals,
certain plastics, textiles, clothing, tires, batteries, etc.
3. Inert waste: construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris
4. Electricaland electronic waste - electrical appliances, light bulbs, washing machines, TVs, computers, screens, mobile
phones, alarm clocks, watches, etc.
5. Composite wastes: waste clothing, Tetra Pack food and drink cartons, waste plastics such as toys and plastic garden
furniture.
6. Hazardous waste including most paints, chemicals, tires, batteries, light bulbs, electrical appliances, fluorescent
lamps, aerosol spray cans, and fertilizers.
7. Toxic waste including pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides.
8. Biomedical waste, expired pharmaceutical drugs.

Lesson 2: Four Components of Municipal Solid Waste Industry

The waste management hierarchy is made up of four levels ordered from most preferred to least preferred
methods based on their environmental soundness: Source reduction and reuse; recycling or composting; energy
recovery; treatment and disposal.
1. Collection
The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste and recyclable materials, but also the
transport of these materials, after collection, to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a
material processing facility, a transfer station or a landfill disposal site.
2. Waste handling and separation, storage and processing at the source
Waste handling and separation involves activities associated with waste management until the waste is placed in storage
containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection.
Separating different types of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source
of collection.
3. Segregation and processing and transformation of solid wastes
The types of means and facilities that are now used for the recovery of waste materials that have been separated at the
source include curb side collection, drop-off and buy-back centers. The separation and processing of wastes that have been
separated at the source and the separation of commingled wastes usually occur at a materials recovery facility, transfer
stations, combustion facilities and treatment plants.
4. Transfer and transport
This element involves two main steps. First, the waste is transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to larger transport
equipment. The waste is then transported, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site.

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 5. Disposal
Today, the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether they are
residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site, residual materials from materials recovery
facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion of solid waste, compost, or other substances from various solid waste
processing facilities. A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid wastes
on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the problems of insects and the
contamination of ground water.
6. Reusing
In the recent years environmental organizations, such as Freegle or Freecycle Network, have been gaining popularity for
their online reuse networks. These networks provide a worldwide online registry of unwanted items that would otherwise be
thrown away, for individuals and nonprofits to reuse or recycle. Therefore, this free Internet-based service reduces landfill
pollution and promotes the gift economy.
7. Landfills
Landfills are created by land dumping. Land dumping methods vary, most commonly it involves the mass dumping of waste
into a designated area, usually a hole or sidehill. After the waste is dumped, it is then compacted by large machines. When
the dumping cell is full, it is then "sealed" with a plastic sheet and covered in several feet of dirt. The signs of pollution are
effectively masked by disposal companies and it is often hard to see any evidence. Usually landfills are surrounded by large
walls or fences hiding the mounds of debris. Large amounts of chemical odor eliminating agent are sprayed in the air
surrounding landfills to hide the evidence of the rotting waste inside the plant.
8. Energy Generation
Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy. Several technologies have been developed that make the
processing of MSW for energy generation cleaner and more economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture,
combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and plasma arc gasification.

Lesson 3: Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. Characteristic
hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or more of the following hazardous traits:

A. Ignitability
B. Reactivity
C. Corrosivity
D. Toxicity

Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as hazardous wastes which are from non-
specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical products.
Hazardous wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids.
A hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products
of our everyday lives

Household Hazardous Waste (HHW) is also referred to as domestic hazardous waste or home generated special materials,
is a waste that is generated from residential households. HHW only applies to waste coming from the use of materials that
are labelled for and sold for "home use". Waste generated by a company or at an industrial setting is not HHW.
The following list includes categories often applied to HHW. It is important to note that many of these categories overlap
and that many household wastes can fall into multiple categories:

• Paints and solvents

• Automotive wastes (used motor oil, antifreeze, etc.)
• Pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc.)

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• Mercury-containing wastes (thermometers, switches, fluorescent lighting, etc.)
• Electronics (computers, televisions, cell phones)
• Aerosols / Propane cylinders
• Caustics / Cleaning agents
• Refrigerant-containing appliances
• Some specialty batteries (e.g. lithium, nickel cadmium, or button cell batteries)
• Ammunition
• Asbestos
• Car batteries
• Radioactive wastes (some home smoke detectors are classified as radioactive waste because they contain very small
amounts of radioactive isotope americium - see: Disposing of Smoke Detectors).

Disposal of Hazardous Wastes

1. RECYCLING. Some hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. Examples may include lead-acid
batteries or electronic circuit boards. When heavy metals in these types of ashes go through the proper treatment,
they could bind to other pollutants and convert them into easier-to-dispose solids, or they could be used as
pavement filling. Such treatments reduce the level of threat of harmful chemicals, like fly and bottom ash while also
recycling the safe product. There is a recycling center facility in Oxnard, CA. The city does not charge for any
hazardous materials being disposed of, but there is a limit to how much you can bring per month. Other than
hazardous waste, the city also allows you to dispose of electronic waste, light-bulbs, and batteries.

2. Cement-Based Solidification And Stabilization. Cement is used because it can treat a range of hazardous
wastes by improving physical characteristics and decreasing the toxicity and transmission of contaminants. The
cement produced is categorized into 5 different divisions, depending on its strength and components. This process
of converting sludge into cement might include the addition of pH adjustment agents, phosphates, or sulfur reagents
to reduce the settling or curing time, increase the compressive strength, or reduce the leach ability of contaminants.

3. Incineration, Destruction and Waste-To-Energy. Hazardous waste may be "destroyed". For example,
by incinerating them at a high temperature, flammable wastes can sometimes be burned as energy sources. For
example, many cement kilns burn hazardous wastes like used oils or solvents. Today, incineration treatments not
only reduce the amount of hazardous waste, but also generate energy from the gases released in the process. It
is known that this particular waste treatment releases toxic gases produced by the combustion of by-product or
other materials which can affect the environment.

4. Hazardous Waste Landfill. Hazardous waste may be sequestered in an hazardous waste landfill or permanent
disposal facility. In terms of hazardous waste, a landfill is defined as a disposal facility or part of a facility where
hazardous waste is placed or on land and which is not a pile, a land treatment facility, a surface impoundment, an
underground injection well, a salt dome formation, a salt bed formation, an underground mine, a cave, or a
corrective action management unit. Historically, some hazardous wastes were disposed of in regular landfills. This
resulted in unfavorable amounts of hazardous materials seeping into the ground. These chemicals eventually
entered to natural hydrologic systems. Many landfills now require countermeasures against groundwater
contamination. For example, a barrier has to be installed along the foundation of the landfill to contain the
hazardous substances that may remain in the disposed waste. Currently, hazardous wastes must often be
stabilized and solidified in order to enter a landfill and must undergo different treatments in order to stabilize and
dispose of them. Most flammable materials can be recycled into industrial fuel.
5. Pyrolysis. Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in a high temperature not necessarily
through electrical arc but starved of oxygen to avoid combustion. However, when electrical arc is used to generate
the required ultra heat (in excess of 3000 degree C temperature) all materials (waste) introduced into the process
will melt into a molten slag and this technology is termed Plasma not pyrolysis. Plasma technology produces inert
materials and when cooled solidifies into rock like material. These treatment methods are very expensive but may
be preferable to high temperature incineration in some circumstances such as in the destruction of concentrated
organic waste types, including PCBs, pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants.
Management Of Resources ( Five R’s Plan)

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There are five R’s that we should follow when helping the environment.

• Reduce: To limit the amount of materials you use

• Reuse: To use an item again
• Recycle: To collect items such as newspaper, bottles, and cans and bring to a plant where they can be made into
something new
• Refuse: Avoid purchasing or using items that are not recyclable.
• ROT: Composting Waste
How can we effectively exhibit the 5 R's in order to protect our environment?

1.Reduce:
• Limit the amount of time you drive, if possible walk
• Use high efficiency light bulbs to conserve energy
• Do not waste paper and things to reduce trash
• Save water & energy
• Eat at home
• Avoid printing in Schools

2.Reuse:
• Bring your own shopping bags to the store
• Donate used clothing
• Reuse bottles/containers as flower vases or pen
holders
• Write & photocopy on 2 sides of paper
• Use rechargeable batteries

3. Recycle:
• Car Parts
• Printer Ink
• Computers
• Cell Phones
• Paper
• Cans
• Plastic Bottles

4.Refuse:
• Do not buy or use plastic
• Reject excessive packaging
• Resist excess consumption
• Do not use disposable tableware (paper plates,
chopsticks, paper cups, plastic silverware)

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 5. ROT:
• Make a compost pile in your yard
• Make a worm compost pile to compost all of your
fruits and vegetables into plant food
• Utilize animal waste to produce fertilizer

V. ASSESSMENT
A. QUIZ
I. Definition of Terms (10 points)
Give your working definition on the following. (2 points for every correct answer)
1. Municipal solid wastes
2. Non municipal solid wastes
3. Biodegradable
4. Non -biodegradable
5. Pyrolysis

B. QUIZ
II. Classification: (20 points)
Specific Instructions: Classify each listed below item based on the category it belongs. Write the letter of the
correct answer.
Categories of Wastes: A. Biodegradable B. Recyclable C. Hazardous D. Toxic Wastes
1. Foil
2. Pesticides
3. Bottles
4. Batteries
5. Fluorescent lamp
6. Aerosol spray
7. Aluminum can
8. Rubber tire
9. Pain and thinner
10. herbicides
D. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:
Specific Instructions: Answer the following questions.
Use your worksheets and follow the instructions provided.
1. Discuss the challenges of responsible household solid waste disposal(30 points)
2. How can we reduce the amount of solid and hazardous substances being disposed in our communities? Propose
a community action plan using a tabular form.(30 points)

RUBRIC FOR SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS

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 Needs
Adequate Quality Exemplary Total
AREAS Improvement
6 pts 8 pts 10 pts Score
4 pts

Content Answers are

Answers are not Answers Answers are
partial or comprehensive are comprehensive, accurate
incomplete. or completely accurate and complete.
Key points are stated. and Key ideas are clearly
not clear. Key points are complete. stated, explained, and
Question not addressed, but Key points well supported.
adequately not well are stated
answered. supported and
supported.

Organization
(Answers are Organization Inadequate Organizatio Well organized,
clearly and structure organization or n is mostly coherently developed,
thought out detract from the development. clear and and easy to follow.
and answer. Structure of the easy to
articulated.) answer is not follow
easy to follow.

Writing Displays over

Conventions five errors in Displays three Displays Displays no errors in
(Spelling, spelling, to five errors in one to spelling, punctuation,
punctuation, punctuation, spelling, three errors grammar, and sentence
grammar, and grammar, and punctuation, in spelling, structure.
complete sentence grammar, and punctuation
sentences.) structure. sentence , grammar,
structure. and
sentence
structure

VI. Suggested Reading Assignments

https://www.biologydiscussion.com/essay/solid-wastes-controlling-methods/5480
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/solid-waste/6-main-types-of-solid-waste-management/30162
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/waste-management/solid-waste-management-types-sources-effects-and-methods-of-
solid-waste-management/9949
https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2001/ra_9003_2001.html

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A Self-regulated Learning Module 125
 CHAPTER 18

RENEWABLE ENERGY and NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

I. Introduction
Without energy, we will not be able to do work. Without energy, machines will not be able to function. Without
energy, there will be no life. The main source of energy here on Earth is the sun. This module will discuss the
sources of energy that humans take advantage of.

II. Objectives:
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss how energy is harnessed in these energy sources.
2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of one energy resource over another.
3. Assess the potential of the Philippines as an energy producer.
4. Conduct library research on energy problems the country is experiencing today.
5. Assess how energy sources’ extraction, use, consumption and disposal affect the Earth’s systems

III. Lesson Proper

Lesson 1: What Is Renewable Energy?
• Renewable energy is collected from renewable resources. A source of energy is considered renewable if it comes
from natural sources or processes that are constantly replenished. Examples are solar (from the sun), wind, water,
geothermal (from the earth) and biomass (from organic materials).
• Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives
directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat
generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen
derived from renewable resources.
• Renewable energy describes a collection of energy technologies i.e. solar, wind, geothermal derived from sources
that are never-ending and can be replenished time after time. Most countries across the world heavily depend
on fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gas) as sources of energy to power their economies.
• Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on
a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat.
• Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water
heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.
• Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly.
• In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the
definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources,
and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
• Renewable energy describes a collection of energy technologies i.e. solar, wind, geothermal derived from sources
that are never-ending and can be replenished time after time. Most countries across the world heavily depend
on fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gas) as sources of energy to power their economies.

Examples of Renewable Resources

1. Alcohol – can be used to generate bio fuel
2. Water – serves as a drinking source but also as a hydropower necessity
3. Methane gas – when methane occurs naturally in an environment (such as in manure) it can generate biogas
4. Natural oils (palm oil, vegetable oil, sunflower oil and soybean oil) can all be used to make biodiesel
5. Thermal generation – such as solar thermal or geothermal heat pumps
Examples of Renewable Commodities
1. Major grains such as wheat, rice and corn
2. Leather and meats supplied by animals
3. Fruits and vegetables

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 4. Paper, furniture and oxygen all supplied by trees
5. Bio based chemicals such as butanol and acetone
Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas:

1. Power generation. By 2040, renewable energy is projected to equal coal and natural gas electricity generation. Several
jurisdictions, including Denmark, Germany, the state of South Australia and some US states have achieved high
integration of variable renewables. For example, in 2015 wind power met 42% of electricity demand in Denmark, 23.2%
in Portugal and 15.5% in Uruguay. Interconnectors enable countries to balance electricity systems by allowing the import
and export of renewable energy. Innovative hybrid systems have emerged between countries and regions.

2. Heating. Solar water heating makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries, most notably in
China, which now has 70% of the global total. Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings
and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total
installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use
of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil.
Direct geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly. The newest addition to Heating is from Geothermal Heat
Pumps which provide both heating and cooling, and also flatten the electric demand curve and are thus an increasing
national priority

3. Transportation. Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced

in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food
sources such as trees and grasses is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used
as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle
emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.

Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels
of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or
fats using trans esterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.

Advantages of Renewable Energy

1. Renewable energy is eco-friendly

It is a clean source of energy, meaning, it has low or zero carbon and greenhouse emission. Fossil fuels emit high
levels of greenhouse gas and carbon dioxide, which are greatly responsible for global warming, climate change,
and degradation of air quality. Fossil fuels also contribute to sulfur emission to the atmosphere leading to acid
rains. Acid rains can cause damage to buildings. Solar and wind power are considered eco-friendly because they emit
zero toxic gases to the environment. The use of renewable energy dramatically reduces the dependence on fossil fuel
as a source of energy, hence, cutting back on air pollution.

2. It’s a renewable resource

This implies that they do not deplete over a lifetime and there is zero possibility that they will run out (sustainable source
of energy). Sources of energy like fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal) are considered limited resources and there is strong
possibility that they will run out in the future. Renewable energy can help developing countries from over-reliance on
fossil fuels. Powerful winds, heat emanating from beneath the earth, sunshine and moving water can guarantee a huge
and steady energy supply to a nation for many years.

3. Renewable energy is a reliable source of energy

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 In the previous few decades, the use of fossil fuel has sharply increased. This over-reliance on fossil fuels has led to
our security being threatened. Fossils fuels are prone to trade disputes, political instabilities, spike in energy prices and
unnecessary wars. These variables affect a lot more than a nation’s energy policies; they can significantly drain a
county’s economy.

Although most argue that solar and wind energy are unreliable, a solid infrastructure puts this argument to rest. If solar
and wind plants are distributed over a large geographical location, there can be minimal electricity generation
interruption because weather disruptions in one location cannot be the same in other locations.

4. Leads to job creation

Renewable energy makes real economic sense because it is a cheaper alternative to most traditional sources of energy.
Since the inception of renewable energy, new and stable jobs have been added to most world economies. For, instance,
in Germany and UK, many jobs have already been created thanks to their relentless efforts to develop and encourage
the use of renewable forms of energy. Experts project that with the on-going rigorous campaigns to embrace renewable
energy, thousands of stable jobs will be created.

5. Renewable energy has stabilized global energy prices

Change up to renewable sources of energy means stability of energy prices across the globe. This is because the cost
of renewable energy depends on the initial cost of installation of renewable energy technologies as opposed to fossil
fuels, which increase and decrease depending on the current inflation and availability of the resource. Respective
governments would only need to cater to the initial costs and that’s it.

6. Less maintenance of facilities

Once infrastructure for the harnessing of the renewable resource is laid down, there is low to zero maintenance required.
This means that the owners of the facilities will reap big profits while providing cheap electricity to the population.

7. Boosts public health

If governments took upon themselves to build more renewable energy facilities, the population would enjoy the health
benefits. According to a study by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Americans spend approximately $361.7
to $886.5 billion every year on overall health of the population. A big chunk of this budget goes to mitigate and cure
diseases related to fossils fuel use like heart diseases, cancer, and neurological disorders.

Greenhouse, carbon and sulfur compounds emitted by fossils fuels are risky to our health if inhaled over time. This is
reason enough to consider renewable energy moving forward.

8. Empowering of people in the countryside

Renewable energy generation mainly takes place in remote settings. This means that local towns would get a fair share
of power generated, ultimately, catalyzing the regeneration of those depressed areas both socially and economically.
Electrification of those areas will open up untapped opportunities for development through the advancement of
greenhouses using geothermal power, district heating of towns and communities through hot water generated by the
energy exploitation of forestry and agricultural biomass.

Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

1. The electricity generation capacity is still not large enough

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 There are still challenges to generation of large quantities of power in renewable energy technology compared to
traditional forms of energy generation like fossil fuel. Fossil fuel still produces large quantities of electricity today, by far.
This, essentially, means that it can’t be solely relied upon to power the whole nation.

This means that either we need to set up more such facilities to match up with the growing demand or look out for ways
to reduce our energy consumption. This phenomenon indicates that a balance of different energy sources will still prevail
for some years to come.

2. Renewable energy can be unreliable

Renewable energy technologies totally depend on the weather (for e.g.: sun and wind) to be able to harness any energy.
In case atmospheric conditions are not good enough, renewable energy technologies would lack the ability to generate
any electricity. This might instigate campaigns by the authorities to reduce energy usage in order to serve the
population for a longer period.

3. Low-efficiency levels
Renewable energy technologies are still significantly new to the market, meaning, they still lack the much-needed
efficiency. This poses forecast problems and investors may shy away from investing their money for fear of not getting
returns pretty quick.
4. Requires a huge upfront capital outlay
Setting up renewable energy generation facilities requires a huge financial outlay. Installation of wind turbine, solar
panels, and hydroelectricity plants are relatively expensive. These plants require upfront investments to build, have high
maintenance expenses and require careful planning and implementation. Also, the electricity generated needs to be
delivered to towns and cities, which means additional cost of installing power lines.

Lesson 2: What Is Non Renewable Energy?

Non-renewable energy sources don’t replenish, and are formed when prehistoric plants and animals died and were
gradually buried by layers of soil rock. The kind of fuel that was created varied depending on the conditions like what
kind of organic material (from plants or animals), how long it was buried, at what temperature and under what
pressure. Types of non-renewable energy are natural gas, coal and oil.

Non-renewable energy is energy from fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas) and uranium. Fossil fuels are mainly made
up of Carbon. It is believed that fossil fuels were formed over 300 million years ago when the earth was a lot different in its
landscape. It had swampy forests and very shallow seas, referred to as 'Carboniferous Period'

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 1. Millions of years ago, dead sea organisms, plants and animals settled on the ocean floor and in the porous
rocks. This organic matter had stored energy in them as they used the sun's energy to prepare foods (proteins)
for themselves (photosynthesis).

2. With time, sand, sediments and impermeable rock settled on the organic matter, trapping its' energy within
the porous rocks. That formed pockets of coal, oil and natural gas.

3. Earth movements and rock shifts create spaces that force to collect these energy types into well-defined areas.
With the help of technology, engineers are able to drill down into the seabed to tap the stored energy, which we
commonly knew as crude oil.

The good thing is about fossil fuels is unlike many renewable sources of energy, fossil fuels are relatively less
expensive to produce. This is probably why it is in higher demand as it tends to cost less.

The bad thing about fossil fuels is, they are made up mainly of carbon. When they are burned (used) they
produce a lot of carbon compounds (carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases) that hurt the environment in
many ways. Air, water and land pollution are all consequences of using fossil fuels.

Sources of Non-Renewable Energy:

The most important classes of non-renewable resources are metals, fossil fuels, and certain other minerals such as
gypsum and potash.
1. Metals have a wide range of useful physical and chemical properties. They can be used as pure elemental substances,
as alloys (mixtures) of various metals, and as compounds that also contain non-metals. Metals are used to manufacture
tools, machines, and electricity-conducting wires; to construct buildings and other structures; and for many other purposes.
Metals are mined from the environment, usually as minerals that also contain sulfur or oxygen. Deposits of metal-bearing
minerals that are economically extractable contribute to the known reserves of metals. An ore is an assortment of minerals
that are mined and processed to manufacture pure metals.

2. Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil-sand, and oil-shale. These materials are derived from the partially
decomposed biomass of dead plants and other organisms that lived hundreds of millions of years ago. The ancient biomass
became entombed in marine sediment, which much later became deeply buried and eventually lithified into sedimentary
rocks such as shale and sandstone. Deep within those geological formations, under conditions of high pressure, high
temperature, and low oxygen, the organic matter transformed extremely slowly into hydrocarbons (molecules that are
composed only of carbon and hydrogen) and other organic compounds. In some respects, fossil fuels can be considered to
be a form of stockpiled solar energy – sunlight that was fixed by plants into organic matter and then stored geologically.

3. Petroleum (crude oil) is a fluid mixture of hydrocarbons with some impurities, such as organic compounds that contain
sulfur, nitrogen, and vanadium. Petroleum from different places varies greatly, from a heavy tarry material that must be
heated before it will flow, to an extremely light fluid that quickly volatilizes into the atmosphere. Petroleum is mined using
drilled wells, from which the liquid mineral is forced to the surface by geological pressure. Often, the natural pressure is
supplemented by pumping.

The refined fractions include the following:

• a light hydrocarbon mixture known as gasoline, which is used to fuel automobiles
• slightly heavier fractions, such as diesel fuel used by trucks and trains and a home-heating fuel
• kerosene, which is used for heating and cooking and as a fuel for airplanes
• dense residual oils, which are used as a fuel in oil-fired power plants and in large ships
• semi-solid asphalts that are used to pave roads and manufacture roofing products

4. Coal is a solid material that can vary greatly in its chemical and physical qualities. The highest quality coals are
anthracite and bituminous, which are hard, shiny, black minerals with a high energy density (the energy content per unit
of weight). Lignite is a poorer grade of coal, and it is a softer, flaky material with a lower energy density.

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Coal is mined in various ways. If deposits occur close to the surface, they are typically extracted by strip-mining, which
involves the use of huge shovels to uncover and collect the coal-bearing strata, which are then transported using
immense trucks. Deeper deposits of coal are mined from underground shafts, which may follow a seam kilometers into
the ground.

Importance of Non-Renewable Energy Resources

1. We can process non-renewable resources at almost any location.

If we want to manage energy from renewables, then we must recognize areas around the world that support that possibility.
This issue applies to solar, wind, and even geothermal for some geographic locations. It is not a problem for non-renewable
resources because we can build processing departments anywhere to support their processing and distillation. Although
there is an issue with transport loss when using non-renewables, a well-developed infrastructure can decrease this problem
rather effectively.
2. Non-renewables provide more energy after the refinement process.
When we process non-renewable resources to capture their energy potential, we can produce more power from oil, coal,
and other examples than what they offer in their raw form. If we were to take a single barrel of crude oil, then we would have
42 gallons of product at our disposal to use. When we finish processing this non-renewable resource, then the yield creates
an equivalency of more than 44 gallons of product.
3. Non-renewables help us to create thousands of different products.
Non-renewable resources are the principal method of hydrocarbon acquisition when manufacturing plastic commodities.
These things protect us in various ways each day to keep us safe. Did you know that the average vehicle today is comprised
of about 50% plastic? That structure allows it to absorb more force during a crash than if it were made from metal.
Smoke alarms, carbon monoxide detectors, and many more safety products come from plastic product manufacturing. You
could even add child safety locks, GFCI outlets, or even cord sheathing to that list. We can also make these items from
plant-based hydrocarbons, but the cost is more prohibitive.
4. Our global GDP requires the presence of non-renewables to stay afloat.
Non-renewable resources are so critical to our economic development that global governments subsidized $5.2 trillion
in costs to make fossil fuels available around the world. That amount is equal to 6.5% of the worldwide GDP. It’s a figure
that is $500 billion higher than 2015 figures. That means gas, coal, and oil companies are bringing in a significant portion
of their income through government-sponsored funds. Eliminating them would create a devastating recession that some
countries might not recover from for more than a decade.
5. Energy outputs are high when consuming fossil fuels.
The reason why we prefer to use non-renewables over other environmentally-friend energy options right now is because
of the high levels of energy output we generate from their consumption. We can develop 8 times more heat energy for what
coal offers when it is compared to other resources. Crude oil provides 12 times more power when refined correctly in
comparison. These output levels are also scalable, which is why they are beneficial. If market levels rise quickly in a
community, then the extra demand can be met relatively rapidly.
6. Non-renewable resources are cheaper to obtain.
We can save about one quarter per gallon of energy products when using biofuels or other forms of renewable resourced.
Since many of these items produce a minimal impact on environmental emissions, the processing of non-renewables is still
the cheaper way to gain the energy access that we require. It would cost 30 times more to create energy efficiency
improvements in the renewables sector to match what we currently have from fossil fuels. If we were to invest the same
amount into the current infrastructure, gas-capture tech could help us to create similar outcomes for our existing needs.
7. We use non-renewable resources for most of the items we use right now.
Imagine that you could divide a barrel of crude oil into what the average person uses every day. You’d have about half
of that product go into the fuel used to operate cars, trucks, and SUVs. Around 30% of that non-renewable product would
be refined into heating oil or diesel fuel. The remainder would go into the manufacturing industry so that we can have soap,
plastic, clothing, shoes, and various hygiene products. Except for Antarctica, every continent gives us access to natural gas,
coal, and crude oil reserves. Then we can transform those non-renewables into multiple products or fuels, maximizing our
use of this natural resource.

10. Non-renewables work with our current systems of distribution.

Non-renewable resources are the fuel that allows our society to keep moving forward each day. Despite the fact that there
is an increasing awareness of alternative energy choices like solar or wind, we must use fossil fuels to develop anything we

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 might want to use in the future. Our current infrastructure is almost entirely reliant on the goods and fuels that we produce
from the hydrocarbons we harvest from the ground, through fracking, or tar sands. The goal of combining non-renewables
with more environmentally-friendly options is to create emissions savings over time that creates a carbon neutral result.
About four-fifths of the fuels that we use come from fossil fuels, so it is not an option that we can drop immediately.

11. It allows us to produce nuclear energy.

Uranium is a non-renewable resource that we use to fuel our nuclear reactors around the world. It currently provides around
6% of the total energy globally, along with about 15% of worldwide electricity. The amount of power generated by a single
reaction easily exceeds what is available for energy creation from any other source. We can’t turn nuclear into deodorant,
but the power created from the reaction is useful to the manufacturers that transform hydrocarbons into usable goods.

Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Resources

1. Non-renewable resources could run out one day.
The primary concern that we have with non-renewable resources is that they could one day disappear from our planet.
That’s why there is such an emphasis on finding renewable energy options to use for future generations. Although the
estimates continue to keep getting pushed back to later dates, we have about 50 years of available oil, gas, and coal.
Stockpiles of these resources could help to extend them even further, but without new availability, we’ll need to change our
infrastructure eventually.
2. Pollution comes from the consumption of non-renewable resources.
The amount of pollution that comes from the combustion of non-renewable resources creates emissions that a majority of
scientists believe is harmful to our atmosphere and environment.
4. The consumption of non-renewables is dangerous to human health.
5. Using non-renewables creates harm to plant and animal life.
6. Our fuel transportation networks for non-renewables damages the environment.
7. Non-renewable resources have limited availability.
8. Humans are addicted to using non-renewables.

Lesson 2: ENERGY SOURCES

Energy use

Nearly everything requires energy and a way to use energy is by transferring it from one energy store to another. Systems
that can store large amounts of energy are called energy resources. The major energy resources available to produce
electricity are fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, biofuel, wind, hydroelectricity, geothermal, tidal, water waves and the Sun.

Energy is needed in:

• homes - for cooking, heating and running appliances

• public services, eg schools and hospitals - running machinery and warm rooms
• factories and farms - operating heavy-duty machines and production chains
• transport - buses, trains, cars and boats all need a fuel source, and some trains and trams connect to an electricity
supply

I. Types of Energy
1. Chemical energy – stored within bonds between molecules. Sources include natural gas, gasoline, coal and
batteries. Even the food we eat is considered chemical energy.
2. Electrical energy – comes from tiny charged particles called electrons. A lightning bolt is one form of electrical
energy. The electricity in our homes is made by humans.
3. Gravitational energy – associated with a gravitational field, like the one that surrounds the Earth. If you’ve ever
fallen down, you’ve experienced the power of gravitational energy. Gravitational energy is the reason why riding
your bike downhill is faster than riding your bike uphill.

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4. Kinetic energy – anything that moves is using this kind of energy. Examples include running, cycling, climbing –
even swiping your finger across your smart phone! Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy in wind and transform
it into mechanical energy.
5. Mechanical energy – stored in objects by tension. When the tension is released, motion occurs. A compressed
spring contains mechanical energy as does a stretched rubber band.
6. Nuclear energy – stored inside tiny atoms that are invisible, but make up the elements of the entire universe.
Nuclear energy is released when atoms join together (fusion) or split (fission). The fusion reaction in the sun
provides warmth and light, while the fission reaction at a nuclear power plant creates enough energy to power large
cities.
7. Solar (radiant) energy – energy that comes from the movement of light.
8. Sound energy – produced when an object is made to vibrate producing a sound. Your voice and musical
instruments use sound energy.
9. Thermal (heat) energy – created from moving molecules. The energy that comes from a fire is thermal energy.

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Energy Source and its Impact on the Environment:
1. Fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gases)- Releases CO2 (causes global warming)
2. Nuclear fuels- Radioactive waste (needs to be disposed of safely)
3. Biofuel- Carbon-neutral so low impact
4. Wind- Take up large areas that could be used for farming, people say windmills spoil their
view
5. Hydroelectricity- Local habitats are affected by the large areas that need to be flooded to
build dams
6. Geothermal- very low
7. Tides- Tidal barrages can block sewage which needs to go out to sea
8. Sun- very little
9. Water waves- very low

II. Energy Sources In The Philippines

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 The Philippines has an emerging economy shifted from agriculture to industry. In terms of energy use, conventional
fossil fuels (oil and gas) are the main source for its primary energy demands. According to the 2011 primary energy
consumption of the Philippines, 31% of the consumption was met by oil, 20% by coal, 22% by geothermal, 12% by biomass,
6% by hydro and 1% by other renewable energy like wind, solar and biofuel.
The Philippines is located in the Pacific Ring of Fire and thus has a high geothermal potential. In terms of electricity
generation, 41.4% of the electricity demand is met by geothermal energy, 28% by coal, 11.4% by hydro, 15% by natural
gas and 0.1% by wind, solar and biofuel. In terms of installed capacity for power generation Hydro is 63.2%, 35.1% is
geothermal, 1.1% is biomass and 0.6% by wind and 0.1% solar.
The Philippines has abundant supplies of biomass energy resources in the form of agricultural crop residues, forest
residues, animal wastes, agro-industrial wastes, municipal solid wastes and aquatic biomass. The most common agricultural
wastes are rice hull, bagasse, cane trash, coconut shell/husk and coconut coir. The use of crop residues as biofuels is
increasing in the Philippines as fossil fuel prices continue to rise. Rice hull is perhaps the most important, underdeveloped
biomass resource that could be fully utilized in a sustainable manner.

Biomass energy plays a vital role in the nation’s energy supply. Nearly 30 percent of the energy for the 80 million
people living in the Philippines comes from biomass, mainly used for household cooking by the rural poor. Biomass energy
application accounts for around 15 percent of the primary energy use in the Philippines. The resources available in the
Philippines can generate biomass projects with a potential capacity of more than 200 MW. Almost 73 percent of this biomass
use is traced to the cooking needs of the residential sector while industrial and commercial applications accounts for the
rest. 92 percent of the biomass industrial use is traced to boiler fuel applications for power and steam generation followed
by commercial applications like drying, ceramic processing and metal production.
Commercial baking and cooking applications account for 1.3 percent of its use.
The Philippines which does not feature in the top 10 overall actually ranked first in the environmental sustainability
category. This is defined as the ability to supply, demand, and develop energy from renewable and other low-carbon
sources.
The Philippines is the only Asian country to make it to the list, which is dominated by European countries. But
even though the populous archipelago ranks highly for using sustainable energy resources among its regional counter-
parts, it remains heavily reliant on fossil fuels.
“The Philippines is number one in Southeast Asia in sourcing its power from renewable energy, with a share of 24.2
per cent in gross generation and 32.5 per cent in installed capacity. However, almost 76 per cent of our power generation
was still supplied by fossil fuel plants,” commented Pedro Maniego, Jr. senior policy advisor of the Institute for Climate and
Sustainable Cities.
“In 2011, at least 384 renewable energy service contracts were awaiting approval from the Department of Energy
(DOE), equaling to 6,046MW of generation capacity,” according to the 2013 WWF report titled “Meeting Renewable Energy
Targets: Global lessons from the road to implementation.”
“While the feed-in tariffs has been approved, unfortunately, many of these projects are still in limbo pending the
approval of other renewable energy mechanisms…because of administrative bottlenecks,” it said.
The Philippines passed the Renewable Energy Act of 2008 five years ago which puts in place mechanisms that will
help the development of the renewable energy sector. Among those, only one, the feed-in tariff has been passed last July
2012.
“The delay has caused frustration among industry stakeholders, who saw the anticipated development of renewable
energy projects stalled due to lack of clarity in policies or slow action on these crucial rules,” the report said.
“The delay on policy action has put thousands of megawatts of potential renewable energy projects at a standstill
and put the country at risk to losing over $2.5 billion in potential renewable energy investments,” it said. The report also
cited the country’s high electricity rates saying it has the second highest rates in Asia and the fourth highest in the world
“partly attributed to high costs related to importing fossil fuels.” “While one of the main strengths of the renewable energy
framework is that the policy mechanisms are legislated under the Renewable Energy Act, 2008, many of the details and
rules pertaining to these mechanisms have been delayed and un-clarified since the law’s inception,” it said. “These delays
have been caused by resistance from many stakeholders- governmental, private, and utilities, among others- which has
been the primary challenge in renewable energy development for the country,” the report said.
The report also cited the country’s already high mix of renewable energy from geothermal, biomass, and hydro
energy. “As far as renewable energy sources, the Department of Energy reported that 40.6 percent of the primary energy
mix was contributed by renewable energy sources in 2011, primarily composed of geothermal at 21.7 percent, followed by
biomass at 12.4 percent and hydro at 6 percent,” the report said.

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 Though the DOE aims to triple the country’s renewable energy capacity by 2030 there were still many setbacks that
continue to slow the development of the sector. “Delays in policy decisions have mostly been affected by disagreements
within governments and the opposition of various influential groups, such as Electric cooperatives, Freedom from Debt
Coalition, Foundation for Economic Freedom, Consumers’ Associations and the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI),”
the report said. “Opposition is mostly based on the argument that a feed-in tariff, to be called the FIT-allowance, will result
in additional charges, which will be collected from all electricity consumers,” it added.
The report concluded that the country needs to engage more with all the stakeholders as well as to improve
coordination in the decision-making and project planning process. “Primarily, the challenges that lie ahead in the Philippines
for renewable energy deployment and achievement if its national targets will be to properly mobilize all stakeholders involved
in the sector through engagement and public participation,” the report said. “Furthermore, coordinating decision-making and
project planning processes, and ensuring the technical and human capacity exist by involving beneficiaries in the
development stages, operation and maintenance of projects will help strengthen the sector,” it said.

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IV. ASSESSMENT

I. Write an analysis paper based on the article, “Energy Sources in the Philippines”.
a. Encode on your worksheet, use Times Roman 12’’ . 1 inch all sides margin.
b. Discuss the current situations, challenges and factors, solutions and benefits) Use a maximum of 100 words. Include
your references. (60 POINTS)
Refer to Research Work Rubric below.
II. Quiz

A. Classification: Classify the following items on which category of energy-resource they belong

WRITE - A. RENEWABLE B. NON RENEWABLE

_______1. ocean waves

_______2. water in dams
_______3. rain water
_______4. fossilized carbon
_______5. coal
_______6. sugar cane
_______7. geothermal
_______8. natural gas
_______9. minerals
_______10. biodiesel
_______11. petroleum
_______12. butanol
_______13. biomass
_______14. biofuel
_______15. uranium

III. ACTIVITY (30 POINTS)

Make your HOME-BASED SUSTAINABILITY PLAN on renewable and Non-renewable energy-resources based on the
categories listed below: Complete the table. Give 3 examples for each category. Describe the expected outcome of each
activity. Example FOR Category D: Replace your window curtains with green based blinds to keep the temperature inside
the house.

a. garbage management
b. food production
c. wastes reduction
d. energy consumption
e. water conservation
Category Description of Activity Expected Outcome
A. Garbage Management
B. Food Production
C. Wastes Reduction
D. Energy Consumption
E. Water Conservation

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FOR RESEARCH WORK ACTIVITY RUBRIC

Needs
Adequate Quality Exemplary Total
AREAS Improvement
6 pts 8 pts 10 pts Score
4 pts

Content Answers are Answers are Answers

partial or not are Answers are
incomplete. comprehensive accurate comprehensive, accurate
Key points are or completely and and complete.
not clear. stated. complete. Key ideas are clearly
Question not Key points are Key points stated, explained, and
adequately addressed, but are stated well supported.
answered. not well and
supported supported.

Organization Organization Inadequate Organizatio Well organized,

(Answers are and structure organization or n is mostly coherently developed,
clearly thought detract from the development. clear and and easy to follow.
out and answer. Structure of the easy to
articulated.) answer is not follow
easy to follow.

Writing Displays over

Conventions five errors in Displays three Displays Displays no errors in
(Spelling, spelling, to five errors in one to spelling, punctuation,
punctuation, punctuation, spelling, three errors grammar, and sentence
grammar, and grammar, and punctuation, in spelling, structure.
complete sentence grammar, and punctuation
sentences.) structure. sentence , grammar,
structure. and
sentence
structure

V. Suggested Reading Assignments

The Philippine Energy Transition Building a Robust Power Market to Attract Investment, Reduce Prices, Improve
Efficiency and Reliability
Sara Jane Ahmed, Energy Finance Analyst March 2019
http://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/The-Philippine-Energy-Transition_March-2019.pdf
n.d.). Sciencing: Making Science Fun for All Ages. The Advantages & Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Energy Sources
| Sciencing. Retrieved from http://sciencing.com/the-advantages-disadvantages-of-non-renewable-energy-sources-
12293766.html

(n.d.). Conserve Energy Future | Your source for green and sustainable living, environmental news and information. What
is Solid Waste Management? Sources and Methods of Solid Waste Management - Conserve Energy Future. Retrieved
from http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/sources-effects-methods-of-solid-waste-management.php
(n.d.). Google Sites. The 5Rs - Love Earth (GVC 1306). Retrieved from http://sites.google.com/a/gsbi.org/gvc1306/how-
we-can-help-protect-the-enviornment/the-5rs
(n.d.). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Municipal solid waste - Wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste

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 REFERENCES

Books

Allaby, Michael (2002). Basics of Environmental Science, Second edition. Taylor & Francis e-Library.

Andaya, Cynthia V (2008). Understanding the Earth Through Environmental Science. C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City,
Philippines.

Cunningham, William & Mary Ann Cunningham (2017). Environmental Science Inquiry and Application, 8th edition.
McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY, United States of America.

Enger, Eldon D. & Bradley F. Smith (2009). Environmental Science A Study of Interrelationships, 11 th edition. McGraw-Hill
Education, New York, NY.

Guzman, Ruth S. & Ruth Marian Guzman-Genuino (2018). Environmental Science Towards a Sustainable Earth. Vibal
Group Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.

Hassenzahl, David M., Mary Catherine Hager & Linda R. Berg (2011). Visualizing Environmental Science, 4 th edition.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ.

Lauck, Elizabeth (2015). Biodiversity and Research Agenda. Measuring Impact Project Team: Environmental Incentives,
Foundations of Success, and ICF International Environmental Incentives, LLC, Lake Tahoe, CA 96150.

Miller, G. Tyler Jr. & Scott Spoolman (2013). Principles of Environmental Science. Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., Pasig
City, Philippines.

Singh, Y. K. (2006). Environmental Science. New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, Daryaganj, New Delhi, India.

Wright, Richard T. & Dorothy F. Boorse (2011). Environmental Science Toward a Sustainable Future. Pearson Education,
Inc., United States of America.

On-line References

Bio Explorer (n.d.). "Top 6 Major Threats To Biodiversity,". Biology Explorer. Retrieved June 1, 2020, from
http://www.bioexplorer.net/threats-to-biodiversity.html/.

Davies, L. (2017, December 21). Gas & Electricity Suppliers for Home & Business | EDF Energy. Types, forms and
sources of renewable energy | EDF Energy. Retrieved May 15, 2020, from http://www.edfenergy.com/for-
home/energywise/renewable-energy-sources

Environmental Pollution - Find Essays, Research Papers and Articles (n.d.). Biodiversity: Types, Importance and
Conservation Methods (with diagram). Retrieved May 19, 2020, from
http://www.environmentalpollution.in/essay/biodiversity-types-importance-and-conservation-methods-with-diagram/311

Leblanc, R. (2019, October 11). Homepage | Your Article Library. 6 Main Types of Solid Waste Management. Retrieved
May 14, 2020, from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/solid-waste/6-main-types-of-solid-waste-management/30162

Lee, M. (n.d.). Travel Tips - USA Today. List of Natural Resources in the Philippines | USA Today. Retrieved June 1,
2020, from http://traveltips.usatoday.com/list-natural-resources-philippines-4929.html

Mondal, P. (n.d.). Homepage | Your Article Library. 6 Main Types of Solid Waste Management. Retrieved May 17, 2020,
from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/solid-waste/6-main-types-of-solid-waste-management/30162

Nathanson, J. (2019, January 22). Contents Hazardous-waste management.

Retrieved May 19, 2020, from http://www.britannica.com/technology/hazardous-waste-management

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Pediaa.Com - Know about Anything (2018, November 21). What is the Difference Between Renewable and Non-
Renewable Energy. Retrieved May 20, 2020, from http://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-renewable-and-non-
renewable-energy/

Philippine Statistics Authority | Republic of the Philippines (n.d.). Energy Consumption | Philippine Statistics
Authority. Retrieved June 2, 2020, from http://psa.gov.ph/tags/energy-consumption

ResearchGate | Find and share research (2018, February). (PDF) Renewable Energy Resources in the Philippines:
Biomass. Retrieved July 1, 2020, from
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/329191446_Renewable_Energy_Resources_in_the_Philippines_Biomass

Shaw, J. (2018, November 15). Conservation International. Why is biodiversity important?. Retrieved May 20, 2020, from
http://www.conservation.org/blog/why-is-biodiversity-important/

Stephen, M. (2018, March 18). Sciencing: Making Science Fun for All Ages. Ways to Manage Our Non-Renewable and
Renewable Resources | Sciencing. Retrieved June 2, 2020, from http://sciencing.com/ways-manage-nonrenewable-
renewable-resources-23595.html

Technology News, Reviews, Features And Analysis | Inquirer.net. (2018, January 11). PH warned of losing $2.5B in
potential renewable energy investments | Inquirer Technology. Retrieved May 18, 2020, from
http://technology.inquirer.net/26733/ph-warned-of-losing-2-5b-in-potential-renewable-energy-
investments#ixzz6NNY1ZOKF

U.S. Agency for International Development (2019, August 26). Environment | Philippines | U.S. Agency for International
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A Self-regulated Learning Module 140