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32 views27 pagesUntitled
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Complex numbers
By the end of this chapter, you should be familiar with...
«+ the properties of complex numbers
+ complex number calculations
+ complex numbers as vectors in the complex plane
‘+ powers and roots of complex numbers
‘+ the use of complex numbers in STEM applications.
Real numbers are those that can be represented as points on a number line,
such as integer, rational, or irrational quantities. Complex numbers cannot be
represented on a number line, but are analytic solutions to equations whose
solutions are not real numbers. As these complex numbers start with the
acceptance of the imaginary unit, it gives the mistaken notion that a solution
may be merely a figment of mathematical imagination; however, the relevance
‘of non-real solutions to equations has been known by mathematicians for
centuries, The many applications in electronics and with fractal images are
‘more current uses you may already be familiar with.
Imaginary numbers
For any real number a, its square is guaranteed to be a positive real number.
fais positive, a” is positive; if ais negative, a? is positive again. So, what
happens mathematically when you need a solution to x? = ~1? Since real
numbers will not give a solution, an imaginary number is required. This
number is called the imaginary unit i, where i? = —1, which implies that
i = /=1. Like other well-known constants, such as 7, ¢, and ¢, this constant i
has many applications, some of which will be presented later in this chapter.
“There ie reason wy we do mot define i = /=T. Its the convention in mathematics that when
-we write 5 then we mean the non-negative square root of, namely 3. We do not mean —3.
{does nt belong to this category since we cannot say that isthe postive square root of —1,
ie,4>0.lfwedo then ~1= i-3>> 0, which s fale, and if we say <0, then ~i> 0, and
=i: 0, whichis also false, Actually ~isalsoa square rot of /=T because
Ai-ie=-1
With this in mind, we can use a convention which alls ithe principal square root of —1 and
waite
‘When we isolate the factor of —1 when there are square roots in an expres
then we can express all negative radicands using the imaginary unit
Unegrtacted proo, all cantant subject fo change at publisher disretin, Nol for resale, circulation or distbution in whale or in part. ©Pearson 2019 Express the each value using the imaginary unit i.
() 16 (&) v=15 (© v= (@) VT
eed
Solution
(a) Y=16 = v6 V=T = 4i
(b) VTS = VTS. VHT = Vi
(0) V27 = V7 VHT = Wi
(@) Hd VH9 = VE VAT V9 VHT
= 21-315 6? g rorondlie
=T and i
Giveni =1, consider further powers of i
‘The first four: ‘The next four:
fez.
Baits 1-1-41
Note that every power k that isan integer multiple of 4 produces it = 1
and the pattern repeats.
Express each in its simplest form.
@r (b) 88
ST
Solution
Divide 31 and 125 by 4 and look for the remainder, fremainder(31,4)
@) *
(b) i”
remainder (13, a)
it
i
Figure 6.1. GDC sersen forthe
solution to Frample 6.2
‘Complex numbers add another dimension to real numbers represented by
points on a number line. This new dimension contains values that are not ‘The zeros of function
axe the solutions to
real, and contains all real numbers as well as imaginary numbers. This super- Se eaaae
set of numbers is called the set of complex numbers. A complex number has zeros fa function are
the form z= a + bi where ais the real component and b is the imaginary Seen
=
component. Such numbers are quite easy to find.
Uncorrected proo, all cantant subject fo change at publisher disretin, Not for resale, circulation or distribution in whale or in part. ©Pearson 2019 Complex numbers
Find the zeros of y = x? — 2x +5
Solution
Thay ‘As the graph of y = x? — 2x + 5 shows, there are no real zeros.
Using the quadratic formula:
== 4ae (2 = 4-1-5
ier eat —“F-33]
Figure 6.2 GDC screen forthe
solution to Example 6.3
Express each value using the imaginary unit i.
() V=35 VTE) VD (@ v=8.V=18
2. Express each number as a complex number in the form a + bi
(a) 44> () -3-/=7 (© -18 + /=18
(@ 4v2-V=8 © =a () 124/512
@ V5 (hb) @+V=9i
3. Express each number in its simplest form.
(i? (b) i (© im @im
4, Find the zeros of each function,
(@) y=x2 +2x+10 (b) y= x? ax +7
() y= 2x? + Ae t+5 (@) y= x? — 2x +10
(© y=x2+6x>10 () y=xttaxt3
5. x*— 1 =Ohas k complex roots. For the value of k indicated, find them
by factorising x‘ — 1. Knowing that (x — 1) isa factor may be useful.
‘There will be an alternative strategy presented later in this chapter.
(a) k=4 (b) kK=3
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Since a complex number has the form z = a + bi that separates the real
component a from the imaginary component b, the addition and subtraction of
complex numbers is very straightforward: combine the components separately.
Find each sum.
(a) (1 + 3i) and (4 +1) (b) (5 — 2i) and (—8 + 5i)
(©) (2/3 — 4i) and (V3 + i)
—__—_{_
Solution
1+4=5 ce
@ (ita © {3
‘he sumis + 4i “The sum is -3 + 31
© PR 8255
=4i4 i= 31
‘The sum is 33 — 31
‘The product of complex numbers is nothing more than the product of two
binomials, found in much the same way as the product (3x ~ 4y)(5x + 2y),
for instance. We can find the product (3 ~ 4i)(5 + 2i) in a similar way.
= A)G +2) = 3-5 43-214 (Ai) 5 + (i) - (2
5 + 64 — 201 - 8
=15+8+(6- 20% sincei?=—1
= 23 14i
Before we divide complex numbers, we need a reminder on the simplification
of rational expressions containing irrational denominators.
Express each fraction with a rational number denominator,
6 2
@t 525
———————————————
Solution
6 (2) _6%
oF - Fe
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(b) Wenneed the conjugate of 3 — 5 which is 3 + V5, so
12 2 =)
3-v5 3-v5 \3+V5,
= 2028) _UO+S) 5641-9435
By considering any complex number a + bias a + b/=T, it essentially has the
same form as the binomial 3 — /5 above. The complex conjugate of:
is called 2* = a — bi and serves a similar purpose to the binomials. Cor
the product of z = a + bi and its complex conjugate, z* = a ~ bi:
(a+ bia ~ bi)
= a? (bi)?
er
=a@te
Just as binomial conjugates produce rational products, the multiplication of a
complex number by its complex conjugate produces an entirely real value.
Express each rational expression in the form a + bi
50.
=4+3i
Solution
6 6 /1-i)_ 60-9 _ _
@ ci GS) a af
50(— 4 — 3i) _ 50(—4 — 3i)
“+9
9 9 (2-s5i)_ 92-5) |
OT Fi Fes Ger) 445
2=3i_ 2-31
Sea sen |
_ 2-33-21) _ 134
944 1B
Consider the roots, x = 1 * 2, of the equation y = x? ~ 2x + 5 in Example 6.3
which we found using the quadratic formula. They are complex conjugates of
each other. We can generate the original equation from the roots. In general:
+ when a quadratic polynomial in x has zeros r and r; then
(x = 1) and (x — 1.) are its factors
Unegyfected proo, al content subject to change at publisher discretion. Not fr resale, circulation or distribution in whole or in part, Pearson 2019 + when (x ~ 1.) and (x — r,) are its factors then the quadratic is
(eo n)@ 4) (ry + nx + nr,
In other words, the negative of the sum of the zeros is the coeflicient of x,
and the product of the zeros is the constant term.
ee
Show how the original function y = x? — 2x + 5 can be found when only its
zeros, x = 1 * 2i, are known.
Solution
Since the complex conjugates (1 + 2i) and (1 — 2i) have a sum of 2 and a
product of 5, the original function would be y = x? = 2x +5
eked
‘A quadratic equation of the form ax? + bx + c= O has one known root,
x=3-4i
Ifa, b, and care all real numbers, then what is the other root?
Solution
In Example 6.7, it was shown that the sum of the roots would be —b and the
product of the roots would be c. For b and c to be real numbers, the other
root must be the complex conjugate of the root given.
Hence, the other root is x = 3 + 4i
eee
Find the equation with the roots given in Example 6.8
Solution
Given that 3 — 4i and 3 + 4i are the roots, their sum is 6 and their product is
25. Ifwe assume that a = 1, then the required equation is x? — 6x + 25 = 0.
However, as there is no specific value given for a, the other coefficients are
multiples of a, and the general solution is ax? ~ 6ax + 25a = 0
Uncorrected proo, all content subject fo change at publisher discretion. Not for ral
AA polynomial has zeros,
a polynomial equation
has roots,
Remember that the
coefficient ofthe qdtatic
term need ntbe 1
ulation of distibution in whole orn part. @Pearsop 2019 aT Complex numbers
Unegrect
a
10.
Find the sum of each pair of complex numbers.
(a) (2 — 4i) and (—3 + 2i) (b) (1 + i) and (3 — 2i)
(©) Qv2 + i) and (V7 = 21)
. Find each product.
(@) (1 4ial + 4i) (b) (23 + )(—2/3 + 1)
(© 3+ 4i)(3 - 4i)
. Find the product of each given complex number and its conjugate.
(a) 4-31 (b) -5 + 121 (© -4- 265i
. Express each quotient in a + bi form.
5 1=2i 2-41
or ©) rai © Sra
. A quadratic function y = ax? + bx + chas real coefficients a, b,and c.
Find the function when one of the zeros is:
(a) 1-i (b) -74i (9 -23 +35
. Find the quadratic function whose zeros are:
(@) x=2+V3,x=2-V3 (b) x=
(Q x=-1221
(x (f) x= -2V3 + V3i
2
. Find the quadratic function of the form y = x? + bx + ¢
whose zeros are:
(@) (5 + 2i and 3 - i (b) (3 + 2i) and (—3 — 21)
(© (3 + v2i) and (—3 — v2i)
. Let z = a + bi, Find the values of a and b if (2 + 3i)-z=7 +i
. (2 + yx + 1) = 1+ 3i, where x and y are real numbers. Solve for x and y.
Consider the complex number z= 1 + V3i
(a) Evaluate z*
(b) Prove that 2" = 8%, where n € Z*
(©) Hence, find z'*
ted proof, all content subject to change at publisher discretion. Not for resale, citculalon or distribution in whole orn part. @Pearson 2019 11, Consider the complex number z = —vZ + VZi
(a) Evaluate z?
(b) Prove that 24* =
(©) Hence, find 2
'—16)*, where k € Z*
12. Given that z is a complex number such that |z + 4il = 2|z + il
find the value of |.
Pl
2-V2i
13, Write the complex number 2 = 3 + in the form a + bi
14, Find the values of the two real numbers x and y if
(x + yi(4— 71) = 3 +21
15. Find the complex number z and write it in the form a + bi:
@ @+1) ty =3-41
The complex plane
Real numbers can be found on a number line, but imaginary numbers cannot.
However, purely imaginary numbers are ordered in the same way as real
numbers.
For example, with real numbers: 1 r= 64.and 6 = 0, so V6H = (64 cis 0)* = 64° cos 0 + i sin 0)
‘This is disappointing. What happened to \/64 = 1 + y3i?
A little bit of trigonometry will help. Recall that sin @ and cos @ are periodic
functions. Adding a multiple of 360° or 27 just produces another co-terminal
angle.
“Thus, sin 0 = sin (0 + 2k7) and cos 6 = cos(0 + 2k) where k © Z
YEH = (64 cis 08 = (64 cis (0 + 2km* = 64 (cos 2K + isin + 2h
ke
3
possibilities
= {2,1 + V3i, —1 + v3i, -2, -1 — V3i, 1 — V3i}
alos +isin ‘z) for k€ {0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5} which produces six
‘We can also analyse +64 in a similar way.
=64 as a complex number is ~64 + 0i which is also a point on the x-axis in the
opposite direction, but the distance is still 64 => r = 64 and @=
{64 = 64 cis mt = (64 cislar + 2ke}t
for k € {0, 1,2, 3} which
produces
2/2 (cos + isin), 972 (cos5Z +i sin
ao ising
22 cos 52 + isin 5), 22 (cos2% + i sin 22)
{2 + 2i, -2 + 21, -2 - 21,2 — 2i}
The Euler form of complex numbers
‘There is yet another form that complex numbers can take: the Euler form.
Every complex number can be expressed as z= re Unfortunately, the
change from ris @ to re! requires some understanding of infinite series,
which is not part of this course.
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Ifa complex number is in Euler form, a GDC will readily convert it into
Cartesian form, Consider the complex number z= 1+ i
A quick mental sketch should show an isosceles right-angled triangle with
r= Zand 6=
hence, z = v2et
4
Ona GDC, enter z = v2e%, then press ENTER: Vie
tli
Now, consider z = |y2e*)
22e* puta GDC is faster
By default, your GDC is set to accept input in Tae
r- el” form and produce results in a + bi form. (vaei""4 =2424,
If you wish to go from a + bi form to Euler form quickly, change the settings
on your GDC.
Figure 6.5 GDC settings
Here, the angles are kept in radian mode (by default) and the output converted
to Euler form.
(a) Convert 1 + v3i to the forms: rcis @and r-e'?
(b) Use the Buler form to find (1 + v3i)®
SS
Solution
First of all, an Argand diagram is useful.
(a) 1+ V3i= 2eisF or 2eF
(b) (1 + v3i)* = (ae! = 64e?™ = 64
Uncgrtected proo, all content subject fo change at publisher disretion, Not for resale, circulation or distribution in whale or in part. ©Pearson 2019 Consider how much easier it would be to explain the multiplication and
division of complex numbers when r and @ are known, No trigonometric
identities are required, just basic exponent rules.
2, = nis, = ne
Given uo their product and quotient respectively are
2) = cis 8, = re
nee y,
els)
4
242, = (HeM)(r,0) = ry el"H and = NET = T
acy
1. Express each complex number in polar form.
(@) 3 +31 (b) -3 +31 (© 3-31
(@) -3-31 (© 54 5/3 () 345i
(g) -5 + 5V3i (h) -5V3 - Si
2, Find the products of each pair of complex numbers. State your answer
ina + biform.
(@) 4 =ScisFand=3cisZ (6) 2 = 4cis ME and z, = 2cis 2%
3. Find the quotient 2, State your answer in a + bi form,
z
it et 3m is™
(@) 4 =6cisFandz,=2cisZ (6) 2 = 16cis *7 and z, = 4cis
(©) 4 =8cisfandz,=2cis> (A) 2 = 16cis F and z, = 2cis
4, For each expression, raise the complex number to the power indicated
and state the result in a + bi form.
(a) (“1495 (b) (-1- (VF +i A) (-V- il
5. Find each root.
@ ie (b) (+ V3) (9 Y=16
6. Write each complex number in Euler form.
(@) -6+61 (b) 23 +61 (© 1-s3i
7. Find the product of the complex numbers in Euler form.
(a) z, = 3e? and z, = 2e* (b) z, = 4e* and z, = 3c?
8. Find the quotient 2 of these complex numbers and give the answer in
a+ biform,
(a) z, = 12e and z, (b) 2, = 16e* and z; = 2e*
Uncorrected proo, all cantant subject fo change at publisher aisretion, Nol for resale, circulation ar distribution in whale or in part. ©Pearson 2019 Complex numbers
9. This chapter started with i = V=T. This time, consider Vi.
(a) How many roots should there be?
(b) Find them in a + bi form.
(©) Are these roots the negative of the roots of /=1? Explain your
answer.
10, Starting with the complex number 2 = —1 + 0i, show how Euler's
formula e'* + 1 = 0 can be found by expressing in Euler form.
Applications of complex numbers
‘he application of complex numbers within mathematics can be found in
topics such as differential equations and eigenvalues; however, the discussion of
these topics requires an understanding of mathematics beyond what has been
covered in the HL syllabus to this point. Complex numbers are used in fluid
dynamics, control theory, quantum mechanics, and Fourier transforms, for
example. We will look at the use of complex numbers in vectors and alternating
current (AC) electrical circuits. Vectors are covered in chapter 8. We will
consider impedance in AC circuits here.
wusoidal curve
Consider an AC waveform, commonly known as a
(Figure 6.5).
Figure 6.6 Sinusoidal curve
AIL AC waveforms have three distinguishing features, Each waveform:
+ is periodic, repeating after a cycle is completed, over a span of n degrees or
radians. The number of cycles per second (frequency) is given in hertz (Hz).
+ has an amy
le, which is the measure of its potential difference or current
+ has a specific starting point, called the phase, typically measured in degrees
relative to its basic waveform which is generally set at the origin.
Usegrtectedproo, al content subject to change a publisher dlsretlon. Nol for resale, culatlon or dsrbutlon in whole or in pat, @Pearson 2019 “The frequency for AC circuits is constant and is generally set at 50Hz or 60H,
and can be taken out of consideration, However, in circuits, both the potential
difference/current and phase do vary. Since there are then two components to,
be considered, AC circuits can and are modelled well by complex numbers.
Consider the potential difference given as a sinusoidal function,
V = 10c0s (wt + 4) ‘whose potential difference (amplitude) is 10, with a phase
angle off ‘These characteristics can be illustrated by the Argand diagram shown.
In electrical notation, this is stated as V = 10245* where the phase angle is
always measured in degrees. In Euler form, it is V = 10e*". As you can see
from the simple right-angled triangle diagram above, the real component is
5:2 ass the imaginary component. ‘The potential difference with phase shift is
described by the complex number 512 + 5y2i
Multiple sinusoidal functions
When more than one AC source is placed in a series circuit, the difference
in phase between them can be resolved by considering the complex number
representation of each source, then added.
Sea
Three AC sources are placed in series, with potential differences Vj,
2 = D
Ve 4cos(ot + 7), and V3= 6{cos ot + 3)
Find the components of the total, V= V, + V; + Vs
120°, V_ = 4245°, and V;
> V=1 + (22 + 242i) + 61 = (1 + 2/2) + (6 + 2V2)i
=> lV] = V0 + 22) + 6 + 22)? = 9.62
6290"
and arctan (¢ = ae 66.6"
9.62.266.6" or 9.62¢%°*!
To convert your answer to a + biform, ers
use your GDC. ¥
Ina + bi form, V = 3.83 + 8.831 .
Figure 6.7 Potenialdilference
inthe complex plane
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Impedance — complex variables used in electrical
theory
Resistance (R) is a measure used in direct current (DC) circuits, In AC circuits,
impedance (Z) is the measure of resistance that includes reactance due to
capacitance (X¢} and inductance {X;). The formula V = IR becomes V = IZ
with AC circuits,
Potential difference across a resistor is noted as Vx, across a capacitor, Vo, and
across an inductor, V,. Both Vc and V, are considered imaginary components,
with the symbol j used to denote the imaginary unit in electrical theory.
Potential difference across a resistor Vx is in phase with the current; however,
potential difference across a capacitor V¢ lags, and potential difference across
an inductor V; leads, Hence, impedance creates a shift measured in degrees,
XL
R
named the phase angle, with 0 = arctan’ “©, Note how 0 is calculated as
imaginary component
arctan| just as for complex numbers in the complex
real component
plane. In electrical notation, Z represents impedance, and Z = R + j(X, — Xe).
This is basically the form z = a + bi
SU Le
Apparticular AC circuit has a resistor of 6 2, a reactance across an inductor
of 11 and a reactance across a capacitor of 392
(a) Express the impedance of the circuit as a complex number in
Cartesian form,
(b) Express the impedance in Euler form, with @ given in degrees, correct
033 significant figures.
a
Solution
(a)
X, = 11, Xo= 3,80 Z = 6 + j(11 — 3) = 6 + 8) (this compares
6 + 8i)
to
(b) Wal = VFR = 10 and 9 = arctan $= 53.1", Hence, Z = 106"
Uncgrtacted proo, all cantant subject fo change at publisher disretion. Nol for resale, circulation or distbution in whale or in part. ©Pearson 2019 ‘This angle measurement may not work with some calculators which expect the angle
‘measurement in radians, Here isa possible conversion:
Storea simple conversion factor into your GDC to conver from degrees to radians
‘The imaginary value was stored in Cand canbe reused,
eei/nose
Asasimple example, tke 1 +iwhich has r= VZand @ = 45% 502= Ve!
ai/ieose
A resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor are connected in series in an AC
