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‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫”وقل أعملوا فسيري هللا عملكم ورسوله والمؤمنون“‬


‫صدق هللا العظيم‬
Mechanics & Thermodynamics
MEC-C 101

Lecture 2

Dr. Ahmed Ibrahim Abdel-Aziz

2
Forms of Energy

3
Objectives
• Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.

• Discuss the nature of internal energy.

• Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated


with energy transfer by heat.

• Define the concept of work, including electrical work and


several forms of mechanical work.
Forms of Energy

• Energy exists in numerous


forms such as thermal,
mechanical, electric, chemical,
and nuclear.

Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system (a fixed mass)


in two forms: heat and work.
For control volumes, energy can also be transferred by mass flow.
Forms of Energy
Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value of the total
energy. It deals only with the change of the total energy.

Total energy of a system could be divided into two groups: macroscopic and
microscopic forms of energy.

The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.

The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure
and the molecular activity, and they are independent of outside reference
frames, their sum is called the internal energy of a system.
Forms of Energy
The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion and the influence of
some external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface tension.

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE).

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a


gravitational field is called potential energy (PE) and is expressed as
Internal Energy

Internal energy is defined as the sum of all the microscopic forms of


energy of a system. It is related to the molecular structure and the
degree of molecular activity and can be viewed as the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies of the molecules.
Forms of Energy
The molecules of a gas move through space with some velocity, and
thus possess some kinetic energy. This is known as the translational
energy.

The atoms of polyatomic molecules rotate about an axis, and the


energy associated with this rotation is the rotational kinetic energy.

The atoms of a polyatomic molecule may also vibrate about their


common center of mass, and the energy associated with this back-
and-forth motion is the vibrational kinetic energy.
Forms of Energy
For gases, the kinetic energy is mostly due to translational and
rotational motions, with vibrational motion becoming significant at
higher temperatures.
The electrons in an atom rotate about the nucleus, and thus possess
rotational kinetic energy. Electrons at outer orbits have larger
kinetic energies. Electrons also spin about their axes, and the energy
associated with this motion is the spin energy.
Forms of Energy

The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the


kinetic energies of the molecules is called the sensible energy

The internal energy is also associated with various binding forces


between the molecules of a substance, between the atoms within a
molecule, and between the particles within an atom and its nucleus.
Forms of Energy
The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called the
latent energy. The phase-change process can occur without a change in
the chemical composition of a system.

An atom consists of neutrons and


positively charged protons bound
together by very strong nuclear forces
in the nucleus, and negatively charged
electrons orbiting around it. The
internal energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule is called
chemical energy.
Forms of Energy
The total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential, and
internal energies and is expressed as:

Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and thus


experience no change in their kinetic and potential energies. Closed
systems whose velocity and elevation of the center of gravity remain
constant during a process are frequently referred to as stationary
systems. The change in the total energy E of a stationary system is
identical to the change in its internal energy U.
Forms of Energy
Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time,
and it is convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid
stream in the rate form. This is done by incorporating the mass flow
rate m.

It is the amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time.
It is related to the volume flow rate V.
Forms of Energy

The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed


system are heat transfer and work. An energy interaction is heat
transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it
is work.

A control volume can also exchange energy via mass transfer since
any time mass is transferred into or out of a system, the energy
content of the mass is also transferred with it.
Energy transfer by heat

Energy can cross the boundary of a


closed system in two distinct forms: heat
and work

When a body is left in a medium that is at


a different temperature, energy transfer
takes place until thermal equilibrium is
established.
The direction of energy transfer is always
from the higher temperature body to the
lower temperature one.
Forms of Energy
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature
difference

Also, the transfer of heat into a


system is frequently referred to as
heat addition and the transfer of heat
out of a system as heat rejection.

Heat is energy in transition


Forms of Energy
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process.
There are two ways a process can be adiabatic: Either the system is
well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass
through the boundary, or both the system and the surroundings are
at the same temperature and therefore there is no driving force
(temperature difference) for heat transfer.
Forms of Energy
As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ (or Btu)

The amount of heat transferred during the process between two


states (states 1 and 2) is denoted by Q12, or just Q. Heat transfer
per unit mass of a system is denoted q and is determined from

The heat transfer rate is denoted Q.


Energy transfer by work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its


surroundings.
Therefore, if the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not
heat, it must be work. Heat is easy to recognize: Its driving force is a
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.

work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a


distance. A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing
the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions.
Energy transfer by work

Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat and, therefore,


has energy units such as kJ.

The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted W.
Direction Convention
Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the
complete description of a heat or work interaction requires the
specification of both the magnitude and direction.

The generally accepted formal sign


convention for heat and work
interactions is as follows:
Heat transfer to a system and work
done by a system are positive; heat
transfer from a system and work done
on a system are negative.
Heat and work
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system
and its surroundings, and there are many similarities between
them:
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross
the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
• Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
• Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties,
heat or work has no meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).
Heat and work
Heat and work

A well-insulated electric oven is being heated through its heating


element. If the entire oven, including the heating element, is taken
to be the system, determine whether this is a heat or work
interaction.
Electrical Work
that electrons crossing the system
boundary do electrical work on the
system. In an electric field, electrons in
a wire move under the effect of
electromotive forces, doing work

where W. is the electrical power


and I the current and V is the volt
Mechanical forms of work
The work done by a constant force
F on a body displaced a distance s
in the direction of the force is given
by;

If the force F is not constant, the work done is obtained by


adding (i.e., integrating) the differential amounts of work:

There are two requirements for a work: force acting on the


boundary with the boundary must move.
Moving boundary work

The work associated with a moving boundary is called boundary


work.
Moving boundary work

The area under the process curve


on a P-V diagram is equal, in
magnitude, to the work done during
a quasi-equilibrium expansion or
compression process of a closed
system.
Moving boundary work
Shaft Work
Spring Work

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