Outline

1 Introduction to xy -plane & xyz-space

2 Limits

3 Continuity

4 Partial derivatives

5 The Chain Rules

6 Approximations

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3. Continuity

Definition (1.)
Let f (x, y ) be a function defined in a domain D ⊂ R2 and (a, b) ∈ D.
The function f is said to be continuous at (a, b) if

lim f (x, y ) = f (a, b).

(x,y )→(a,b)

Remark. For a continuity of f (x, y ) at (a, b), 3 conditions must hold:

1 f is defined at (a, b), i.e. (a, b) ∈ D,
2 there exists a limit lim f (x, y ) = L,
(x,y )→(a,b)
3 L = f (a, b).

We say that f is continuous on D if it is continuous at each (a, b) ∈ D.

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• Polynomials & Rational Functions.

Definition (2.)
A polynomial of two variables is a function of the form

p(x, y ) = c0 + c1 x + c2 y + c3 xy + c4 x 2 + c5 y 2 + · · · + ck x n y m .

For example, p(x, y ) = π − 282x 2 + y 3 − 2023xy 9 .

A rational function of two variables is a ratio of two polynomials

p(x, y )
, with q(x, y ) 6= 0.
q(x, y )
x 2 + xy + y 2
For example, f (x, y ) = , where y − x 2 6= 0.
x2 − y

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From the properties of limits, it follows that for non-negative integers m
and n, we have
lim x m y n = am b n .
(x,y )→(a,b)

Thus f (x, y ) = x m y n is continuous at every point (a, b) ∈ R2 .

This gives the following important facts:

Polynomials are continuous on R2 .
Rational functions are continuous on their domains of definition.

For example, p(x, y ) = π − 282x 2 + y 3 − 2023xy 9 is continuous

x 2 + xy + y 2
everywhere on R2 , while f (x, y ) = is continuous at any
x2 − y
point (x, y ) ∈ R2 satisfying y 6= x 2 .

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Example (3.)
Is the function
 2 2
 2x − y

if (x, y ) 6= (0, 0),
g(x, y ) = x2 + y2

0 if (x, y ) = (0, 0),

continuous at (0, 0)?

Solution. Note that g(x, y ) is defined at (0, 0) and g(0, 0) = 0, and

hence we have to check whether lim g(x, y ) = 0.
(x,y )→(0,0)
2x 2 − y 2
But we already proved that lim g(x, y ) = lim
(x,y )→(0,0) (x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + y 2
does not exist, and so g is not continuous at (0, 0).

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Outline

1 Introduction to xy -plane & xyz-space

2 Limits

3 Continuity

4 Partial derivatives

5 The Chain Rules

6 Approximations

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4. Partial derivatives

Definition (1. Partial derivative of f (x, y ) w.r.t. x)

For a function of two variables f (x, y ), partial derivative of f w.r.t. x is
the function fx defined as follows:
f (t, y ) − f (x, y )
fx (x, y ) = lim ,
t→x t −x
(keeping y as a constant).

Note that the subscript x indicates that the values of t tends to x.

∂f
Another notation: .
∂x

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The symbol fx (a, b) is the partial derivative fx (x, y ) at a point (a, b)
(i.e., x = a, keeping y = b unchanged):

f (t, b) − f (a, b)
fx (a, b) = lim .
t→a t −a

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This is the gradient of the curve z = f (x, b) at x = a.

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Therefore, we have
The partial derivative fx (a, b) is the slope of the tangent to the
curve z = f (x, b) at x = a.

It gives the rate of change of f (x, b) at (a, b) along the positive

x-direction.

Other notations:
 
 ∂f 
fx (a, b) = fx (x, y ) = .
x=a,y =b ∂x x=a,y =b

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Example (2.)
Let f (x, y ) = x 2 y 3 . Use the definition of partial derivative to compute
fx (x, y ).

Solution. We have
f (t, y ) − f (x, y ) t 2y 3 − x 2y 3
fx (x, y ) = lim = lim
t→x t −x t→x t −x
t 2 − x2
= y 3 lim = y 3 lim (t + x) = 2xy 3 .
t→x t − x t→x

∂f
We also write: = 2xy 3 .
∂x

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Example (3.)
Consider 
 x sin(x + y )

if x + y 6= 0,
f (x, y ) = x +y
0

if x + y = 0.

Determine whether fx (0, 0) exists. If it does, what is its value?

Solution. We use the definition,

f (t, 0) − f (0, 0)
fx (0, 0) = lim .
t→0 t −0
t sin(t + 0) t sin(t)
Since f (0, 0) = 0 and f (t, 0) = = = sin t (as t 6= 0),
t +0 t
we have
f (t, 0) − f (0, 0) sin t
fx (0, 0) = lim = lim = 1.
t→0 t −0 t→0 t

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• Partial derivative of f (x, y ) w.r.t. y

Similarly, we have partial derivative fy .

Definition (4.)
For a function of two variables f (x, y ), partial derivative of f w.r.t. y is
the function fy defined as follows:

f (x, t) − f (x, y )
fy (x, y ) = lim ,
t→y t −y

(keeping x as a constant).

The subscript y indicates that the values of t tends to y .

∂f
Another notation: .
∂y

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The symbol fy (a, b) is the partial derivative fy (x, y ) at a point (a, b)
(i.e., y = b, keeping x = a unchanged):

f (a, t) − f (a, b)
fy (a, b) = lim .
t→b t −b

We also have
The partial derivative fy (a, b) is the slope of the tangent to the
curve z = f (a, y ) at y = b.

It gives the rate of change of f (a, y ) at (a, b) along the positive

y -direction.

Other notations:
 
 ∂f 
fy (a, b) = fy (x, y ) = .
x=a,y =b ∂y x=a,y =b

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This is the gradient of the curve z = f (a, y ) at y = b.

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• Partial derivatives: in terms of h → 0

We can also define the partial derivatives as follows:

1 Letting t = x + h and noticing that t → x is equivalent to h → 0,
we have
f (x + h, y ) − f (x, y )
fx (x, y ) = lim .
h→0 h

2 Similarly, with t = y + h, we have

f (x, y + h) − f (x, y )
fy (x, y ) = lim .
h→0 h

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• Partial derivatives for 3-variable functions

Definition (5.)
For a function f (x, y , z) of three variables, its partial derivative w.r.t. x
is defined as
f (x + h, y , z) − f (x, y , z)
fx (x, y , z) = lim
h→0 h
and it is obtained by regarding y and z as constants and differentiating
f with respect to x.

Other partial derivatives: fy and fz .

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• Partial derivatives of functions of n variables

More generally, we have the following definition.

Definition (6.)
For a function f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) of n variables, the partial derivative w.r.t.
to the variable xi is defined by

fxi (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
f (x1 , . . . , xi + h, . . . , xn ) − f (x1 , . . . , xi , . . . , xn )
= lim .
h→0 h

∂f
Other notations: , or simply, fi (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
∂xi

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• Evaluating partial derivatives

• For a fixed value of y , the definition

f (t, y ) − f (x, y )
fx (x, y ) = lim
t→x t −x
tells us that it is the usual derivative of the function f (x, y ) w.r.t. x.

Therefore, to evaluate fx , we regard y as a constant and differentiate

the function f (x, y ) with respect to x.

Hence, we may apply rules of single-variable differentiation whenever

they are applicable.

• Similarly, to evaluate fy , we regard x as a constant and differentiate

f (x, y ) with respect to y .

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Example (7.)
Find fx (2, 1) and fy (2, 1), if f (x, y ) = x 3 + x 2 y 3 − 2y 2 .

Solution. We have
∂  3 
fx (x, y ) = x + x 2 y 3 − 2y 2 = 3x 2 + 2xy 3 ,
∂x
∂  3 
fy (x, y ) = x + x 2 y 3 − 2y 2 = 3x 2 y 2 − 4y .
∂y
Then

fx (2, 1) = 12 + 4 = 16 and fy (2, 1) = 12 − 4 = 8.

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Example (8.)
x ∂f ∂f
If f (x, y ) = sin , calculate and .
1+y ∂x ∂y

Solution. Using the Chain Rule for functions of one variable, we have
(keep y as a constant)
 
∂f x ∂ x 1 x
= cos = cos ,
∂x 1 + y ∂x 1 + y y +1 y +1

and (keep x as a constant)

 
∂f x ∂ x −x x
= cos = 2
cos .
∂y 1 + y ∂y 1+y (y + 1) y + 1

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• Similarly, we have partial derivatives for 3-variable functions.

Example (9.)
p
For f (x, y , z) = x sin y + e3x y 2 + 9z, compute fx , fy , and fz .

Solution. We have
p
fx (x, y , z) = sin y + 3e3x y 2 + 9z,

e3x y
fy (x, y , z) = x cos y + p ,
y 2 + 9z

9e3x
fz (x, y , z) = p .
2 y 2 + 9z

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Example (10.)
Find fx , fy , and fz , if f (x, y , z) = exy ln z.

Solution. We have
∂ xy
fx (x, y , z) = (e ln z) = yexy ln z,
∂x
∂ xy
fy (x, y , z) = (e ln z) = xexy ln z,
∂y
∂ xy exy
fz (x, y , z) = (e ln z) = .
∂z z

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• Second partial derivatives

• If f is a function of two variables, then its partial derivatives fx and fy

are also functions of two variables.

Then we can consider their partial derivatives: (fx )x , (fx )y , (fy )x , and
(fy )y , which are called second partial derivatives of f .

∂2f
We use the notation fxy , or to indicate that we first differentiate f
∂y ∂x
with respect to x followed by differentiating with respect to y :

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
fxy = (fx )y and = .
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

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• For a 2-variable function f (x, y ) there are FOUR second-order partial
derivatives:

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
(fx )x = fxx = , =
∂x ∂x∂x 2
∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
(fx )y = fxy = = ,
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
(fy )x = fyx = = ,
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y
∂2f
 
∂ ∂f
(fy )y = fyy = = .
∂y ∂y ∂y 2

• Similarly, for a 3-variable function, there are NINE second-order

partial derivatives.

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Example (11. Back to Example 7)
Find all second-order derivatives of

f (x, y ) = x 3 + x 2 y 3 − 2y 2 .

Solution. We fist find the first-order derivatives

fx = 3x 2 + 2xy 3 , fy = 3x 2 y 2 − 4y .

Now we have

fxx = (fx )x = 6x + 2y 3 , fxy = (fx )y = 6xy 2 ,

fyx = (fy )x = 6xy 2 , fyy = (fy )y = 6x 2 y − 4.

Note that fxy (a, b) = fyx (a, b).

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• Is it true that fxy = fyx ?

In general, fxy 6= fyx .

However, under some conditions, these partial derivatives are equal.

Theorem (12. Equality of mixed derivatives)

If f (x, y ) and its partial derivatives fx , fy , fxy , and fyx are defined
throughout an open region containing a point (a, b) and all are
continuous at (a, b), then

fxy (a, b) = fyx (a, b).

The above theorem is also known as Clairaut’s Theorem, named after

the French mathematician Alexis Clairaut who proved it in 1740.

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Example (13. Back to Example 10)
∂2f
For f (x, y , z) = exy ln z, find and fzxy .
∂z∂y

Solution. First, we have

∂2f xexy
 
∂ ∂f ∂
= = (xexy ln z) = .
∂z∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z z


Next, to compute fzxy = (fz )x y
, we evaluate

exy yexy
fz = =⇒ (fz )x = .
z z

Hence,

exy + y (xexy ) exy (1 + xy )
fzxy = (fz )x y
= = .
z z
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• Gradient Vector

We introduce a useful term, known as the gradient vector, denoted by

∇f . It is a vector formed by partial derivatives of f .

Definition (14.)
1 For a function f of two variables x and y , the gradient of f is the
vector ∇f defined by

∂f ∂f
∇f (x, y ) = fx , fy = i+ j.
∂x ∂y
2 For a function f of three variables x, y , and z, the gradient of f is
the vector ∇f defined by

∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f (x, y , z) = fx , fy , fz = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Example (15.)
For f (x, y ) = x(x − 3) − y , find
∇f (x, y )
∇f (P0 ), where P0 = (1, −1).

Solution. Since f (x, y ) = x(x − 3) − y = x 2 − 3x − y , we have

fx (x, y ) = 2x − 3, fy (x, y ) = −1.

Hence,


∇f (x, y ) = fx (x, y ), fy (x, y ) = (2x − 3, −1),
   
∇f (P0 ) = (2x − 3) , −1 = (2 · 1, −1) =
 
x=1,y =−1 x=1,y =−1
(−1, −1).

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Example (16.)
x2 z2
For F (x, y , z) = + y 2 + , find the gradient vector ∇F (x, y , z).
4 9

Solution. We have
x 2z
Fx (x, y , z) = , Fy (x, y , z) = 2y , and Fz (x, y , z) = .
2 9

Hence,  
x 2z
∇F (x, y , z) = , 2y , .
2 9

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More generally, for a function of n variables, we have the following
definition.

Definition (17.)
If f is a function of n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then the gradient vector (or
simply, gradient) of f is the vector ∇f defined by
 
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = , ,..., .
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn

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