NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation

Module 2: Sensors and signal processing

Lecture 1
Sensors and transducers

Measurement is an important subsystem of a mechatronics system. Its main function

is to collect the information on system status and to feed it to the micro-processor(s)
for controlling the whole system.

Measurement system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices.

Today a wide variety of these elements and devices are available in the market. For a
mechatronics system designer it is quite difficult to choose suitable
sensors/transducers for the desired application(s). It is therefore essential to learn the
principle of working of commonly used sensors/transducers. A detailed consideration
of the full range of measurement technologies is, however, out of the scope of this
course. Readers are advised to refer “Sensors for mechatronics” by Paul P.L. Regtien,
Elsevier, 2012 [2] for more information.

Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the

production operations as well as process monitoring activities. Sensor technology has
the following important advantages in transforming a conventional manufacturing
unit into a modern one.

1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of
manufacturing system. It helps operators to reduce the downtime of complete
manufacturing system by carrying out the preventative measures.
2. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
3. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.

Sensor

It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being

measured [1]. According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined
as ““A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.
measurand.”
Here, the output is usually an ‘electrical quantity’ and measurand is a ‘physical
quantity, property or condition which is to be measured’. Thus in the case of, say, a
variable inductance displacement element, the quantity being measured is
displacement and the sensor transforms an input of displacement into a change in
inductance.
NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation

Transducer

It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a

related change [1] or an element which converts a specified measurand into a usable
output by using a transduction principle.

It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to
another form.

A wire of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) can be called as a sensor

because variation in mechanical displacement (tension or compression) can be sensed
as change in electric resistance. This wire becomes a transducer with appropriate
electrodes and input-output mechanism attached to it. Thus we can say that ‘sensors
are transducers’.

Sensor/transducers specifications

Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems. Mechatronics design

engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or measurement
system to properly assess its performance. There are a number of performance related
parameters of a transducer or measurement system. These parameters are called as
sensor specifications.

Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal behavior
of the sensors. Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.

1. Range
The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For
example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of
25-225 °C.

2. Span
The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus,
the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.

3. Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm,
when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm.
NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation

4. Accuracy

The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement
result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed as a percentage of the
full range output or full–scale deflection. A piezoelectric transducer used to evaluate
dynamic pressure phenomena associated with explosions, pulsations, or dynamic
pressure conditions in motors, rocket engines, compressors, and other pressurized
devices is capable to detect pressures between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70
MPa). If it is specified with the accuracy of about ±1% full scale, then the reading
given can be expected to be within ± 0.7 MPa.

5. Sensitivity

Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to

the per unit change in input value that causes the output change. For example, a
general purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41 µV/°C.

6. Nonlinearity

Figure 2.1.1 Non-linearity error

NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation

The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a
sensor from the ideal curve. Figure 2.1.1 shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship
between the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the actual measured or calibration line.
Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined
as:

(2.1.1)

The static nonlinearity defined by Equation 2.1.1 is dependent upon environmental

factors, including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity.
Therefore it is important to know under what conditions the specification is valid.

7. Hysteresis

Figure 2.1.2 Hysteresis error curve

The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in

output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified range when
approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input
parameter. Figure 2.1.2 shows the hysteresis error might have occurred during
measurement of temperature using a thermocouple. The hysteresis error value is
normally specified as a positive or negative percentage of the specified input range.
NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation

8. Resolution
Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can
be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of
the full-scale reading or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a
displacement up to 20 mm and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100
then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2 mm.

9. Stability
Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time. The term ‘drift’ is used to indicate the change in
output that occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range
output.

10.Dead band/time
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which
there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.

11.Repeatability
It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of
same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:

Repeatability = (maximum –
(2.1.2)

12.Response time
Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of
the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output
range for which the response time is defined.

Classification of sensors

Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as
measurand, application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand
and thermodynamic considerations. These general classifications of sensors are well
described in the references [2, 3].
NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation

Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications in manufacturing is as

follows.

A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors

Potentiometer
Strain-gauged element
Capacitive element
Differential transformers
Eddy current proximity sensors
Inductive proximity switch
Optical encoders
Pneumatic sensors
Proximity switches (magnetic)
Hall effect sensors
B. Velocity and motion
Incremental encoder
Tachogenerator
Pyroelectric sensors

C. Force
Strain gauge load cell
D. Fluid pressure
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
Piezoelectric sensors
Tactile sensor

E. Liquid flow
Orifice plate
Turbine meter
F. Liquid level
Floats
Differential pressure
G. Temperature
Bimetallic strips
Resistance temperature detectors
Thermistors
Thermo-diodes and transistors
Thermocouples
Light sensors
Photo diodes
Photo resistors
NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation

Photo transistor

Principle of operation of these transducers and their applications in manufacturing are

presented in the next lectures.

Quiz:

1. Define sensors and list the various specifications that need to be carefully studied
before using a Thermocouple for reading the temperature of a furnace.
2. Differentiate between span and range of a transducer system.
3. What do you mean by nonlinearity error? How it is different than Hysteresis
error?
4. Explain the significance of the following information given in the specification of
the following transducer,
Thermocouple
Sensitivity: nickel chromium/nickel aluminum thermocouple: 0.039 mV/ºC when
the cold junction is at 0 ºC.

References:

1. Boltan, W., Mechatronics: electronic control systems in mechanical and

electrical engineering, Longman, Singapore, 1999.
2. Regtien, P. P. L., Sensors for mechatronics, Elesevier, USA, 2012.
3. Tonshoff, H.K. and I. Inasaki, Sensors in manufacturing, Wiley-VCH, 2001.