Research Methodology

Research Methodology

• It is the specific procedures or techniques used to

identify, select, process, and analyze information
about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology
section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's
overall validity and reliability.
Consists the following:
• Research Design
• Flow of the Study
• Research Environment
• Respondents
• Instrument
• Data Gathering Procedure
• Statistical Treatment
• Scoring Procedures
Every research plan should include the research design which,
following the model suggested by Sanchez (1986), consists of:
• Description of the sources of data and sample;
• Methodology;
• Description of (data-gathering) instruments used;
• Data-gathering procedure;
• And statistical treatment applied.
 Research Design

• “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy
in procedure”
• It is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
 Descriptive Research Design
• A type of research design that aims to systematically obtain information to
describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More specifically, it helps
answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding the research
problem rather than the why.
• A researcher can conduct this research using various methodologies. It
predominantly employs quantitative data, although qualitative data is
sometimes used for descriptive purposes.
• Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or
manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.
 What are the Characteristics of Descriptive
Research Design?
1. Quantitative in nature
Descriptive research involves the collection of quantifiable and
systematic data that can be used for the statistical analysis of the
research problem.
2. Uncontrolled variables
One of the most prominent characteristics of descriptive research is
that, unlike in experimental research, the variables are not controlled or
manipulated. Instead, they are simply identified, observed, and
measured.
 What are the Characteristics of Descriptive
Research Design?
3. A basis for further research
The data collected in descriptive research provides a base for further
research as it helps obtain a comprehensive understanding of the
research question so that it can be answered appropriately.
4. Cross-sectional studies
The descriptive research method is generally carried out through cross-
sectional studies. A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study
that involves gathering information on various variables at the
individual level at a given point in time.
 Descriptive research methods
1. Surveys
• Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be
analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of
surveys include:
• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s
services
2. Observations
Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and
phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of
respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and
market researchers to understand how people act in real-life
situations.
 Example of Descriptive Research Design
• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioral and morphological differences between
European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?
• A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather
than textbooks.
• To understand if its wellness programs enhance the overall health of the
employees.
 Causal-comparative Design
• A causal-comparative design is a research design that seeks to find
relationships between independent and dependent variables after
an action or event has already occurred.
• The researcher's goal is to determine whether the independent
variable affected the outcome, or dependent variable, by
comparing two or more groups of individuals.
• Occurs after the event or action has been completed.
Example
• The leadership might want to determine whether a particular
math curriculum would improve math ACT scores more
effectively than the curriculum already in place in the school
district.
• Before implementing the new curriculum throughout the district,
the school leaders might conduct a causal-comparative study,
comparing their district’s math ACT scores with those from a
school district that has already used the curriculum.
 Correlational Design
• In correlational designs, the experimenter measures two or more
nonmanipulated variables for each participant to ascertain whether linear
relationships exist between the variables.
• The researcher might use the correlations to conduct subsequent regression
analyses for predicting the values of one variable from another. No
conclusions about causal relationships can be drawn from correlational
designs.
• It is important to note, however, that correlational analyses might also be
used to analyze data from experimental or quasi-experimental design.
 Experimental Research Design
• Experimental research design is ideally suited to establish casual relationships
if proper controls are used. The key feature of experimental research is that
a treatment variable is manipulated.
• Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or
more independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or more
dependent variables to measure their effect on the latter.
• The effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables is usually
observed and recorded over some time, to aid researchers in drawing a
reasonable conclusion regarding the relationship between these 2 variable
types.
 ✓
✓
✓
✓

Figure 2.
The Flow of the Study
The Research Environment
 Research Environment
• Describes the locale of the study
• Show the map with thumbnail images on the façade of the locale.
• Present the map in a separate page.
 Research Respondents
• In this section, specify the number of possible respondents of the study.
• Present the distribution of respondents using an APA table.
• Describes the total population, sampling method used, sampling size
determination, and characteristics of the sample.
Statistical Tests

When you conduct research

about a group of people, it’s rarely
possible to collect data from every
person in that group. Instead, you
select a sample. The sample is the
group of individuals who will
actually participate in the
research.

Sampling Method
Probability Sampling Non - Probability
Method Sampling Method
 Probability Sampling Method

• Simple random sampling

• Systematic Sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the
whole population.
Each member of the population has an equal chance, or probability, of
being selected.

Example: To illustrate, there are 80 students in the class, and so the first step is
to identify each student by a number from 1 to 80. Suppose you decide to select
a sample of 20 using the simple random sampling technique. Use the fishbowl
draw, the table for random numbers or a computer program to select the 20
students. These 20 students become the basis of your enquiry.
2. Systematic Sampling
Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From
the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From
number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and
so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations
that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise
conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the
sample.
The population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a
similar characteristics.

Example: The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees.
You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company,
so you sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then you use
random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives
you a representative sample of 100 people.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups,
but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.
This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but
there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial
differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.
Example: The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the
capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random
sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
 Non - Probability Sampling Method
• Non-Probability Sampling Method do not follow the theory of probability in
the choice of elements from the sampling population.
• Non-probability sampling designs are used when the number of elements in
a population is either unknown or cannot be individually identified. In such
situations the selection of elements is dependent upon other considerations.
• In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random
criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.
• This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a
higher risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can
make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited.
• If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make
it as representative of the population as possible.
 Non - Probability Sampling Method

• Convenience sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Quota sampling
• Snowball sampling
1. Convenience sampling
• A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to
the researcher.
2. Purposive sampling
• This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using
their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
3. Quota sampling
• In addition to convenience, you are guided by some visible characteristic, such as gender or
race, of the study population that is of interest to you. The sample is selected from a
location convenient to you as a researcher, and whenever a person with this visible relevant
characteristic is seen that person is asked to participate in the study. The process continues
until you have been able to contact the required number of respondents (quota).
4. Snowball sampling
• If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via
other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people.
 ‘How big a sample should I select?’, ‘What
should be my sample size?’ and ‘How many
cases do I need?’
 Basically, it depends on what you want to do with the findings and what
type of relationships you want to establish. Your purpose in undertaking
research is the main determinant of the level of accuracy required in the
results, and this level of accuracy is an important determinant of sample size.

• At what level of confidence do you want to test your results, findings or

hypotheses?
• With what degree of accuracy do you wish to estimate the population
parameters?
• What is the estimated level of variation (standard deviation), with respect to
the main variable you are studying, in the study population?
The larger the sample size, the
more accurate the findings.
Research Instrument
• One of the most important components of a research
design is the research instruments because they gather
data or collect data or information.
• These research instruments or tools are ways of gathering
data. Without them, data would be impossible to put in
hand.
 Qualities of a Good Research Instrument
1. Validity – measures what it claims to measure.
i. Content validity – shows how adequately the test samples the universe
of knowledge, attitudes, and skills that a student is expected to master.
ii. Construct validity – the degree to which scores on a test can be
accounted for by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory.
iii. Criterion-related validity - evaluates how accurately a test measures the
outcome it was designed to measure.
 Qualities of a Good Research Instrument

2. Reliability – A test is reliable to the extent that is measures

consistently, from one time to another. Reliable tests, whatever
they measure, yield comparable scores upon repeated
administration.
Research Instrument

• In the first paragraph, mentions all instruments used in the study.

• In the succeeding paragraphs, discuss whether the instrument is a
standardized tool, the researcher made or adapted questionnaire.
• Mention in detail the instrument’s source, the number of parts in
the instrument, number of items for each part, and how to
answer these items.
 Data Gathering Procedure
• The process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
• Explain how the data are collected.
• Discuss in detail the process of acquiring approval from the different offices
connected with the study’s locale of the study.
 Statistical Treatment of Data
• Statistical treatment of data is a process used to convert raw data into
something that is interpretable.
• This process is essential because it allows to make better decisions based on
feedback.
• Discuss in this section the statistical tool used in the study. Do not write the
formula.
• Connect the statements to your sub-problems found in the Statement of the
Problem.
 Scoring Procedure
• Scored procedure means a written test, structured oral interview,
performance test, or other selection procedure or a combination of these
procedures that results in a numerical score to which percentage points may
be added.
• Discuss the scoring procedures.
 Definition of Terms
• Researchers define terms so that readers can understand the
context in which the words are being used or their usual or
unrestricted meaning.
a. Define terms that individuals outside the field of study may not
understand.
b. Define terms when they first appear so that a reader does not read
ahead in the proposal operating with one set of definitions only to find
out later that the author is using a different set.
 Definition of Terms

• Give the operational definition of variables found in the

Statement of the Problem and how they are used in the study.
• Taken from the title, main problem and specific problems.
• Arrange the words in alphabetical order.
 References / Bibliography

• References – the items that you have read and specifically referred
to (or cited) in your work.
• Bibliography – a list of everything you read – whether or not you
referred specifically to it.