ne xyon0urs Liou) Taree to Abstoct Ajebra 0, Let = (a) where lo =m Given a! € G, show (9) = (oA), where d= 1). [ints ‘Theorem 3 §1.2} 31 ‘group and let A = (g*) and B = (*) a 7), where m = lem(a,8). ) , (Theorem 7) that aln and ijn. Show again = (o"), where m = lem), een senna Age 52. Show that the following condition wale ditions are equivalent for a finite group G. (4) Gis cyte and [6] =p", where pis a prime and'n>0. (2) If H and K are subgroups of G, either HC K ot K CH. For (1) = (2) use Theorem 7] 88. IF group G has a finite number of subgroups, show that G' must be finite 34. Prove the Chinese Remainder Theorem. Let myn3,...,nr be posit ively prime in pais. Given Integers mya... sry show that rm € Z auch that mi = 1m (mod) for each i [dint Bx Exercise 25 to r groups] (rein) eae Us Eaten 35, (a) Let al = m and [b] = n in a group G. If ab = b in a grow = ba, show that an clement © € G exists, with fe! = lem(mn). [Hints Theorem 9 §1.2, Theor teem $1.2, Theorem 7, and ) Let G be an abelian group and that G hasan ele assume that G has an element of maximal ard ene toe GBs). Show thas gh = Yr ally € 6. tie 36. Let m be the smallest postive integer such that a” = ¢ sm bo a rit for all € Sq. Show 37. For a deck of 2n distinct cards, a “perfect shuffle" , a perfect shuffle” means cutting the deck into {so equal halves and collating them as fol cards wer two ol hae a lows: If the cards were originally in «they end up in the order 1,n++1,2,n-+2,..~ ym, 2n. Tn each case, determine the number of perfect shulfles re tn ach cafe, dtemine the munter of perfect se rogue to bing the (2) n=4,5,6, and 7 (b) n= 8,9, and 10 (n= (a) n= 26 (a regular deck) 2.5 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS Mathematicians do nt dea in objects, bu in elations among objets they are re to replace some objects by others so long as the relations remain unchanged. ‘Content to them is irelevant: they are interested in form only " Hlonti Poincaré Up to this point we another. Most such Gy are groups, a mapping a : G -+ Gy is called a homomorphism if HHomomorphisims were fist used expl (for permutation groupe) by Jordan in 1870, 9 Gdijoe lmemorpisms and omorpiams 442 Wek Michel som Susie “Uea9). 25/ Homorernis wd a(ab) = a(a) + a(0) for all a and b in G. Note that in this case the product ab is in G while a(a) -(b) is in Gs Example 1. The mapping a: Z + Z given by a(a) = 3ais a homon of additive groups because a(a +b) = 8(a+8) = 30+ 35 = aa) + a(6) for all abe Z 2. If ais an clement of a group G, define the exponent map ‘by a(k) = a for all € Z. Then a is an (onto) homomorphism ‘Zis addition) Exam aks ‘because (as the operation a =a(k)-a(m) — for all kymeZ, a(k-+m) = abt = Example 9. Let Rt denote the group of positive real numbers under mul- fiptication. ‘The absolute value map a: C* > R* given by a(z) = [el for als € C* is a homomorphism (in fact, onto) by virtue of the fact that Jew) = [zl[u] for all z,w € Example 4. Let GLn\ trices over R. The denote the general linear group of n x n invertible ‘erminant map GLn(R) -+ R° given by A+ det A ira homomorphism (onto) because det(AB) = det A det B for all matrices A . If n = 2, determinants are defined 1d det A #0 if :@ 4 G is a homomorphism for any 14(0) for all a,b in G. Example 5. The ‘group G because 1¢(ab) = ab = lot “Bzample 6. For groups G and Gy, there is always at least one homomorphism from G to Gi, the trivial homomorphism a : G -> G; defined by a(g) = 1 for all g € G. Example 7. Lot G = G, x Ga be a direct product of groups. We define m:G-+Gy by m(g1,92) = a1iGi +G by alg) =) ‘Then m; is an onto homomorphism as the reader can verify (called the pro- nd oy is 2 one-to-one homomorphism (called the injection milarly there is a projection onto Ga, and an injection of jection onto of G1 into @) 4G. Example 8. Ia: G+ H and: H -> K are homomorphisms, show tha ‘the composite map Ba : G > K is also a homomorphism. Solution. This is because, for all a and b in G,116 2/ GROUPS BaXab) = Bla(ab)] = Ala a(b)] = Bla(a)] - 4 ] = Ba(a) Bali). O A homomorphism a : G > G: Pp i is a mapping that preserves the operation in the sense that a(ab) = a for all a and b in G. Theorem 1 shows that a also preserves the identity, inverses, and powers. Theorem 1. Let a: GG, be a homomorphism. Then: () al. =1 (a preserves the identity element) (a preserves inverses) (a preserves powers) (2) a(g-!) = a(g)-! for all 9 € G. @). Ik k 20, then = 0 then a(g' a(g***) = a(gg*) = a(g) -a(g*) Hence (3) holds for k > 0 by induction. If k < 0, write k= ~ ion. writ m,m > 0. Then (2) and the preceding calculation give ag) = af(g")*) = [alo = a(gt) for all k € 2. . Thus [a( Corollary, Let a: Hl be « homomorphiom. If 9 € G has finite onder, then a) ale an fe orn end atte: gh nn SLM gai gs er te a0 =H ey Let G and Gy denote groups. In order to show that two mappings a : @ Gand 6 > Grae wo mar vey hat (a) = 0) hl al jowever, if a and are homomorphisms, this need only be checke: for all g in some generating set for G. " 7 ‘Theorem 2. Let a: G + Gy and 8: G - Gy be h A 11 be homomorphisms and assume that G-=(X) generated by a subset X. Then =f ifandonly if —a(z) = A(z) for all ze X. Proof. If a = A, the condition is obvious. If the condition holds, let g € @ and write (Theorem 8 §2.4) 9 = 2f' aks, where 2; € X anc each i. Then Theorem 1 gives i ee Rand eZ ir Blea) = = (9) 25/ Homomerpnisms ane ‘As g € G was arbitrary, this shows that a = B. . ‘Theorem 2 shows that a group homomorphi determined by its effect on a generating set for G. This is useful because many groups are generated by a relatively small number of elements. 13 Sy + Oo. Ezample 9. Show that there are at most six homomor} 10,70} where Solution. As in Example 8 §2.2 we write Sy = (1,0,0%, Because $3 = jol = 3, |r] = 2, and ora = 7, and write Cy = (c), [el = 7), Theorem’? shows that a homomorphism a by the choice of ao) and a() in Os. Now a(a)* = a(a) = a(t) = 1, s0 the order fa(o)| of a(o) is 1 or 3. Hence there are three chofees for ao): 1c, - J a(t)? = 1, so a(t) must be either 1 or c¥. Thus there are at most 3-2 = 6 choices in all. a ‘We hasten to note that not all the choi actual homomorphisms. In fact, there are only two homomorphisins from Sp to Ce, and we return to this example later (see Example 9 §2.10) Isomorphisms We have shown that there are two distinct groups of order 4: the cyclic ‘ein group. Determining how to distinguish between fe notion of isomorphic groups. Roughly speaking, fc if they are the same except for notation. justration, consider the groups G = {1,—1} and Zj = {1,3}. The two Cayley tables are distinct groups leads to the two groups are isomor @| 1-1 zili 3 1) 1-1 ifr 3 -1f-1 1 a|3a Clearly, they are alike. In fact, because the way the identity multiplies is always specified, we can describe both by saying that the nonidentity element squares to 1, A more precise comparison can be given as follows: The mapping o:G + Zi given by o()=1 and o(-1) =3 is a bijection, and we can obtain the entire Cayley table for 2] from that of G by replacing a with o(a) for every a in G. In other words, the two groups are the same except for notation; we obtain Zj from G by changing symbols. "This works in general. IfG and Gy are groups and o : G > Gs is abi ‘we ask when the Cayley table for G, results from applying o to every element Of the table for G. This transformation is shown in the diagram.118 2/ GROUPS @ bo o(b) a ab o(a) o(ab) Hence the (0) for all a and b in G, that is that o is a o:G onto) to G; we say that G is isomorphic to Gy and write G = Hence, if : @ > Gy is an isomorphism, the change of notation g +4 a9) ‘the same group except for groups a8 two different isomorphism comes from isos, meaning equal, and morphe, meaning shape.) Example 10. The set 22 = {2k | k € Z} of even integers is an additive group, in fact. a subgroup of Z. Show that Z & 22. Solution. The function o : Z > 22. given by o(k) = 2k is clearly onto, and o is ‘one-to-one because o(f) = o(m) implies k = m. Finally, o is a homomorphisin because o(k-+m) = 2(k-+m) = 2k + 2m = ak) + o(m) for all k and m in Z. ‘Thus o is an isomorphism, so Z 22, o Note that the argument in Example 10 shows that 2 & nZ for any nonzero integer n. oamle 11.46 = {[2 mn. G is closet we [1 ™ lm). Savin cinco vee [2] [2 7] =[ can animin 2. The ident mae r= [4 9] ea in nay Lan rejtlpi = wor | 7] mG, we nave { § t] =[6 subgroup of GLa(Z). Now define o : Z > G by a(n) = [ it | for all n in 2. This map is clearly onto and one-to-one, and given mand n in Z, we have we ] ee. Hence G is 0 .25/ Homomerphisms and Womorphisms 119 ime [S EP ]=[5 TI Lo i] -2e-oe “Hence o preserves the operations and so is an isomorphism. o Clearly, G & G for any group G (the identity map G —+ G is an isomor- phism). However, even though two groups are isomorphic, they sometimes Tppear to be quite different. For example, the group C* of all nonzero com- plex numbers is known to be isomorphic to the circle group C? of complex Dumbers on the unit circle”. Here is a less spectacular example Beample 12. Show t! tive, Solution, Define o : R-+R* by a(r) = function. To show that @ is one-to-one, let o(r) @ = e' so, if Inz denotes the natural logarithm, r = In(e") ‘Thus o is one-to-one. Ift € Rt, then > 0,s0 Int € R and o(Int) = Hence a is onto. Fi Re Rt, where Ris additive and Rt is me 1e exponential €R Then olr-+a) =e =eret = o(r)-o(s) forall r and sin R which shows that ¢ is an isomorphism. a Example 19, Let G = {a) be a cyclic group. Show that: (i) If|G| =n, then G ¥ Zn = 0, then G © 2. Solution. Tf [G| =n, then [al =n, $0 we define @ : Zn > G by o(k) = a*. We Inust show that this mapping is well defined. But Theorem 2 §2.4 gives kam @ k=m(modn) @ af =a™ 0 a is well defined (and one-to-one). Since ¢ is clearly onto, it remains to verify that it is a homomorphism: o(k-+m) = o(F Fm) =a = Hence @ is an isomorphism, proving (1). The proof of (2) is similar and we leave it as Exercise 14 a Example 14. Por the group (under addition), the mapping a : R > R given by a(r) = 2r +1 is onto and one-to-one as is easily verified, but it is ot an isomorphism; for example, a(1 +1) =5 but a(1) + a(1) = 6. = o(k)-o(m See, for instance, Clay, J 1961 ‘The punctured plane is isomorphic to the unit crcl," J 3 500-801.120 2/ GRourS Verifying that a particular mapping is an isomorphism requires checking three things: that it ig onto; that it is one-to-one; and that it is operation- preserving. Although a particular mapping @ : G -> G; may fail one of these tests, the groups G and Gi could very well be isomorphic (see Example 14). Conversely, showing that @ and G are not isomorphic entails showing. that no isomorphism exists from G to G;. Examples 15 and 16 illustrate this situation. Example 15. Show that Q is not isomorphic to Q* Solution. Suppose that o : QQ" is an isomorphism. ‘Then o is onto, 50 let q € Q satisfy o(q) = 2, and write o(}q) = a. The fact that a is ® homomorphism then gives a? = o(}a)-ol$a) = o(}a+ 30) = (a) =2. But there is no rational number a that satisfies a? = 2 (Example 3 §0.1), 50 no such isomorphism o can exist. Oo Example 16. Let G and H be cyclic groups with |G| = 9 and || =3. Show that G and H x HT ate not isomorphic, even though both groups have order 9. Solution. If G = (a) then a® # 1. On the other hand every element x of Hx H satisfies 2° = 1 (as this holds in H). ‘This would not occur if G & H x H because the two Cayley tables would then be the same except for notation. a Example 16 points to an important feature of isomorphisms: They preserve structural properties of groups, that is, properties that depend only on the Cayley table of a group and not on the way the group is described. ‘The property that 2? = 1 for every eloment of Hx H in Example 16 is clearly a structural property, so it must be enjoyed by any group isomorphic to H x H. Because G does not have this property, it cannot be isomorphic to H x H. We can often show that two groups are not isomorphic by exhibiting a structural property of one that is not shared by the other. ‘The following list contains several examples of structural properties of group G. ) G has order n. finite. abelian ) G is cyclic (6) G has no element, of order n (6) G has exactly m clements of order n. 125/ Homomorphisms and omorpnisms 4s ‘The reader can likely add to this list. ‘The above discussion is summarized in the following theorem. morphic groups and G has a structural prop- jructural property. ‘Theorem 3. If G& H a erty, then H also has that ‘Thus if G is abelian or cyclic, and if @ © H, then H is abelian or cyclic. The reader should verify these facts directly using an isomorphism ¢ + ‘Theorem 4. Let G,G1, and Ga denote groups. (1) The identity map 1g : G + G is an isomorphism for every group G. (2) if: G+ Gs 48 on isomorphism, the inverse mapping a! + Gx + G is also an isomorphism. (9) fo: > Gy and 7 = Gy > Ga ore isomorphisms, their composite ro :G—+ Ga is also an isomorphism. Proof, (1) is clear, and (8) follows from Theorem 3 §0.8 and Example & ‘Tumning to (2), the inverse mapping o~* : Gi -+ @ exists because 7 fs» ‘nd o~? is also a bijection (see Theorem 5 §0.3). Tt remains to show ‘a homomorphism. If 9, and hy are in Gy, write g = o~¥(o1) and hzon¥(hy). Then o(g) = 91 and o(h) = hi, 80 ‘Therefore o~! is an isomorphism. . Corollary 1. The isomorphic relation & is an equivalence for growys. That is: ) G&G for every group G. If G& Gy then G; = G. (3) f G& Gi and G, = G2 then G = Ga. Proof, Bach of (1), (2), and (3) follows from the corresponding item in Thess rem 4. ‘As an illustration of Corollary 1, we show that if G and Hare both cyclic of order n then @ » H, Indeed G © Zp and H & Z, by Example 13, s0 G = Hl by Corollary 1. The reader should give a direct proof along the lines of Example 13. Corollary 2. If G is a group, the set of all isomorphisms G > G forms a group under composition. Proof, The isomorphisms G > G are a subset of the group Sq of al ij G2 G, and Theorem 4 shows that they are a subgroup of So122 2/ Groups 1G isagroup, an somorphism G -> Gis called an automorphism of group of all automorphisms is denoted aut G and. a Chis soup of led the automorphism Ezample 17. If G is abelian, the mapping o : G + G defined b; # 7 . : ined by a(g) = forall € @ san astomerphiam of GW eave the verteaton vee roar Example 18. If Gis any g aga™! for all a € G. Show that: (2) o4 is an automorphism of G for all a in G. (2) {oa | a €G} is a subgroup of aut G. and a € G, define 0, : G+ G by ou(g) = Solution. We leave viaton tat is one-one and ota fr the reader. If g,h € G we have whee Gio = aga! aha“ = agiha~! = agha~! = o4(gh). Hence a is an automorphism of G, proving (1). If b € G, then F400(9) = Fa(bgb-) = a(bgb = abg(ab)~* = o45(9) for all 9 € G, 80 a5 = oa. Because 01 = 1g, this implies that o7' = 4-1 (verify), so the set {o4 | a € G} is a subgroup of aut G by the Subgroup Tost. is (2). a is a group and a € G, the automorphism a, : G > G in Example 18 is called the inner automorphism of @ determined by a. The group of all inner automorphisms of G is denoted inn G. Because each inner automorphism a: G + G is given explicitly in terms of a, the group inn G = {0 |a € G} is routinely determined, By contrast, the group autG can be difficult. to determine. We do one simple case in Example 19 below. Because it is a homomorphism, every isomorphism preserves the identity, inverses, and powers. But isomorphisms also preserve the order of an element (compare with the Corollary to Theorem 1). ‘Theorem 5. Let ¢ : G+ Gy be an isomorphism. Then |a(g)| = re ‘orphism. Then |o(9)| = |gl for all Proof. Tt suffices to show that gk = 1 if and only if fo(g)* = 1. If gt = 1 = 9(1) = 1 by Theorem 1. Conversely, if (o(g)]* = 1, = I= 1=o(1), Hence g* = 1 because a is one-to-one, Example 19. If @ is eyelic of order 6, show that aut@ = {10,4}, A(9) = 97" for all g EG. God}, where 25/ Homomerphisms and Itomeorphisms 123 Solution. Both 1g and (as G is abelian) \ are automorphisms of G. Ifo : G Gis any automorphism, we show o = 1g or ¢ = A. G = (a), where |al = 6. Theorem 1(3) shows that the choice of o(a) completely determines o. We have |o(a)| = |a| = 6 by Theorem 5, s0 o(a) = a, of (a) = ab = a7! IF 9 €G, write g =a" for some k € Z, s0 that (9) = o(a*) = (0 If o(a) = a, this shows that o(9) = a* = 9 for all g € G, that is = 1g. If ola) = a-", it shows that o(g) = (a2)* = (a*)-? = g~ for all g € G, that is, 0 =). 0 Cayley's Theorem We conclude this section with a proof of a theorem of Cayley (proved in 1878) that every finite group is isomorphic to a group of permutations. If X is a nonempty set, recall that Sx denotes the group of all permutations of XX (bijections X > X) under composition. We need one simple observation about these permutation groups: Ifa bijection o : X —+ ¥ exists then Sx Sy. Indeed, if \€ Sx we have yo xAxSy s0 odo-! € Sy. But then y : Sx - Sy given by (A) = oo~? is an isomorphism, as can be readily verified. In particular Sx & S,, whenever Ix|=n. Now let G be a group. We noted earlier that each row of the Cayley table of G is a permutation of G in the sense that each nt appears exactly once. Since the row of a € G is {ag | 9 € G), this is just the assertion that 9+ ag is a bijection G -> G. This is the connection that Cayley noticed Detween the groups G and Sq. ‘Theorem 6. Cayley’s Theorem. Every group G of order n is isomorphic to a subgroup of Sn. Proof. By the preceding discussion, there is an isomorphism : So -> Sn, 0 it suffices to find an isomorphism @ : G -> Gi, where G; is subgroup of } is a subgroup of S,, and yO: G+ o(Gi) ism]. If a € G, define 7. : G -+ G by Ta(9) = ag for all is easy to verify that rq is a bijection (s0 7» € Sc) and that th = los Te! = To-ty and Tap = Tar for a,b € G. These relations imply that G; = {r. | a € G} is a subgroup of Sc, so define 8 : G -+ Gy by B(a) = T. for all a ¢ G. Then 6 is clearly onto; ‘tis also one-to-one because 74 = 7, implies that a = 74(1) = (1) = b. Finally, ra» = 7a% implies that 0 is a homomorphism, and hence an isomorphism. .124 2/ GROUPS Cayley’s Theorem shows that every abstract group of order n is (up to iso- morphism) a subgroup of Sq. Hence, to study the groups of order n, we need only study the symmetric group Sq. At first this approach sens to be an advantage because S, consists of conerete mappings that can be analyzed us- ing tools (such as cycle factorization and parity) not available in an abstract group. However, these symmetric groups are extremely large, so a subgroup of order nis lost in Sq, (for example, |Sio] = 10! However, in Section 8.3 we give a generalization xy’s Theorem that cuts down the size of the symmetric group and so provides more information about G. Arthur Cayley (1821-1895) Cayley showed his mathematical talent at an early age, quickly ex- celling at school. After some initial reluctance, his merchant father| sent him to Cambridge at the age of 17. During the following eight years he read the works of the masters and published more than 20 developed broad interests id French, as well as Engl (he demonstrated talent in watercolors) and became an enthusiastic hiker and mountaineer. ‘At the age of 25, with no position as a mathematician in view, he undertook legal training and was admitted to the bar three years later. ng asa lawyer but resisted the temptation he accepted the Sadlerian professorship at Cs there for the rest of his life, valued for his administrative and teaching’ ated matrix algebra and the theory of determinants. He also wrote| on quaternions, the theory of equations, dynamics, and astronomy. He continued working until his death, leaving 966 papers filling 13 volumes of 600 pages each. Exercises 2.5 1. In each case show that a is a homomorphism and determine if it is onto oF one-to-one, provi (0) a: R+ Gra(R) given by a) =[ 5 |] orale (0) a: 6 -+G x G given by a(g) = (4) forall gi the group G Verify that ri and are homomorphisms ia Example 7, and that mis onto and ois one-tovone 16G is any group, define a :G + G by a(g) = 9~!. Show that Gis a aod only fis « homomorphism If m € Z ia fxod and G is an abelian group, show that @ : G+ Gis a homomorphism where we define a(a) = a” for all a €G. a be the inner automorphism of G determined by a. a: G ~> inn is Shae ty aa) son for alla € ©, show that a ia honomorphiam. What is a(a) fae Z(G)? Show that there are exactly two homomorphisms a: Co > Cx. [ints Bxam- ple 9] In > 1, give an example of a group homomorphism @ : G > Gh and an element 9 € @ such that |g = o0 but la eseribe all group homomorphisms () Tow rany are onto? Ifa: GG; isa homomorphism, show that K = {g € G | a(g) = 1} ia subgroup of G (called the kernel ofa) Ita:G-+ Gs a homomorphism, show that ima = a(@) = {a(g) 19 € G) in ecubgroup of Gi. Ifa: G+ Gy is an onto homomorphism and G = (ai : In each case determine whether a : G-> Gy is an isomorphism. Support your ian if show that G, = G=G1=2s, G=R,G=R*, — a(9)=lol alg) =a9,040 Joh ‘group, show that G © 2. Show that o : C* + C* is an automorphism if o(s) = Z for all 2 € C (z denotes the complex conjugate of 2). If g and h are elements of a group G, show that (gh) & (hg) 6G is a group of order 2, show that G x G & Ke. IGG, and H & Hi, show that G x H™ G1 x Hh.126 |. Show that 2/ GROUPS G ~ G1 is an isomorphism, show that 2(G1) = o[2(G)}, where (@)] = {o(2) | = € 2(G)}- Ifo : G+ Gy is an onto homomorphism and G = (a) is eyclic, show that « Write nd = {nk | k € Z). Show that nZ & mZ whenever n #0 and m # 0. is not isomorphic to Zip not isomorphic to R* Show that R le group © = {x €C|s| = 1} is not isomorphic to R. |. Find two nonisomorphie groups of order n® for any integer n > 2. . Are the additive groups Z and Q isomorphic? Support your answer. Show that 24 & 2} 1G = (a) and whore Jaj = [6] = 6, describe all isomorphisms GG, Show that Rt x © = C*, where © = (2 € C| |z| = 1) is the circle group. Dene aR 4R by alg) = aot l= and et Gy = fre on emef0) lne~ {2 tone apo}. Sow tm Cond Gi are subgroups of GL2(R) and Sp, respectively, and that G = G). ue={[ 4 { JJoseR, «ana aot both 0}, show that @ is a sub- group of Ma(R)* and that @ = C* Tn each ease, find aut @, where G = (a) is cyclic of order n, (@)n=2 (b)n=3 Iho: X + ¥ is a bijection, where X and ¥ are sets, show that Sx & Sy, (See the discussion preceding Theorem 5). If Gis infinite cyclic, determine aut C. If Gis a group such that 2(G) = {1}, show that @ &innG. [Hint: 9+ 04.) Let = € Z(G) and let G* denote the set G with a new operation ab = abz™? ‘a group and G* 2G. a group and 9 € G, let S(g) = {o € aut @ | o(9) = 9} show that (9) is a subgroup of autG for all g € @. (b) Ifg: = 7(g), 7 € aut, show that S(g) and (91) are conjugate subgroups of aut. Ina group G, write a ~ bif b= gag” for some g € G (a is conjugate to b). (a) Show that ~ is an equivalence relation on G. (b) Determine which elements of G have singleton equivalence classes. If @ = (X) and o : G+ Gr is an onto homomorphism, show that Gr = (o(X)),, where o(X) = {o(z) | € X} Show that Zi, Zits 26/ Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem —12¢ 40, Show tat a(n) Gln (Zn). [Hints Ifo € aut(Zn x Zn), let o(1,0) = .d), and show that @ acts as Tight multiplication by AL. Let X be a nonempty set and let F(X) denote the set ofall functions A: X + R. Given d, € F(X), define A+ ye X +R by (A+ 1)(z) = A(z) + (2) for all 2 € X. (a) Show that F(X) is an abelian group using this operation. If X ={1,2,3}, show that F(X) #Rx RXR. ‘MM; is called a monoid sass o(2) = 1 and oC) = 2 ‘monoids, a mapping o 49. If M is monoid, let B(M) denote the st ofall mappings a: M > M that satisfy the condition a(zy) = a(2)-y for all 2,y € M. (a) Show that H(M) is a monoid under composition. Given a € M, define ag : M+ M by ag(z) = az for all X € m. Show (€) Show that {a | a € M) is a monoid under composition and find a monoid isomorphism (see Exercise 42) o : M -+ {aq | a € M). This is a version of Cayley’s Theorem for monoids. 44, Let M be a commutative monoid (sy = yz for all z,y € M) and assume that M is cancellative: zy = 22 in M implies that y = z. Show that Mf is isomorphic to a submonoid of a group. (A submonoid of a monoid M means fa subset of M, closed under the operation of M and containing the unity of M,) [Hints Define = on M x Af by (2,9) = (2/,y/) if zy = 2'y. Show that = is an equivalence on M x M and write the equivalence class of (z, y) a8 a {fraction 2/y. Show that these fractions form an abelian group ] 2.6 COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM set to anathematics all the litle themes on physical inquiries ‘ought him, much as Schubert set to music any stray rhyme He [Lagrange] wou which his friends that took his fancy. Herbert Westron Turnbull In this section we prove one of the most important theorems about finite groups, Lagrange’s Theorem, which asserts that the order of a subgroup of 2 finite group Gis a divisor of [G|. This has far-reaching consequences as we shall see. The proof of the theorem involves counting elements of G and depends on the following basic notion, ‘Let H be a subgroup of a group G. If a € G we identify two subsets of G: Ha= {hal h€ H} — the right coset of H generated by a. aH = {ah| he H} — the left coset of H generated by a.