DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

WITH COMBINATORICS

JAMES A. ANDERSON
University of South Carolina, Spartanburg

\ SUB Gottingen
214 765 644

2002 A 4031

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Preface xi

Truth Tables, Logic, and Proofs

1.1. Statements and Connectives 1
1.2. Conditional Statements 9
1.3. Equivalent Statements 13
1.4. Axiomatic Systems: Arguments and Proofs 20
1.5. Completeness in Propositional Logic 30
1.6. Karnaugh Maps 35
1.7. Circuit Diagrams 41

Set Theory 51
2.1. Introduction to Sets 51
2.2. Set Operations 54
2.3. Venn Diagrams 60
2.4. Boolean Algebras 67
2.5. Relations 72
2.6. Partially Ordered Sets 84
2.7. Equivalence Relations 88

Logic, Integers, and Proofs 94

3.1. Predicate Calculus 94
3.2. Basic Concepts of Proofs and the Structure of
Integers 104
3.3. Mathematical Induction 109
3.4. Divisibility 119
3.5. Prime Integers 124
3.6. Congruence Relations 129
vi Contents

Functions and Matrices 136

4.1. Functions 136
4.2. Special Functions 141
4.3. Matrices 147
4.4. Cardinality 158
4.5. Cardinals Continued 160

Algorithms and Recursion 165

5.1. The "for" Procedure and Algorithms for Matrices 165
5.2. Recursive Functions and Algorithms 169
5.3. Complexity of Algorithms 182
5.4. Sorting Algorithms 187
5.5. Prefix and Suffix Notation 195
5.6. Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers 200
5.7. Signed Numbers 212
5.8. Matrices Continued 217

Graphs, Directed Graphs,

and T r e e s 224
6.1. Graphs 224
6.2. Directed Graphs 231
6.3. Trees 238
6.4. Instant Insanity 245
6.5. Euler Paths and Cycles 247
6.6. Incidence and Adjacency Matrices 254
6.7. Hypercubes and Gray Code 265

Number Theory 272

7.1. Sieve of Eratosthenes 272
7.2. Fermat's Factorization Method 273
7.3. The Division and Euclidean Algorithms 275
7.4. Continued Fractions 279
7.5. Convergents 284

Counting and Probability 290

8.1. Basic Counting Principles 290
8.2. Inclusion-Exclusion Introduced 297
8.3. Permutations and Combinations 304
8.4. Generating Permutations and Combinations 316
8.5. Probability Introduced 320
 Contents vii

8.6. Generalized Permutations and Combinations 327

8.7. Permutations and Combinations with Repetition 332
8.8. Pigeonhole Principle 337
8.9. Probability Revisited 342
8.10. Bayes'Theorem 357
8.11. Markov Chains 359

Algebraic Structures 365

9.1. Partially Ordered Sets Revisited 365
9.2. Semigroups and Semilattices 369
9.3. Lattices 374
9.4. Groups 380
9.5. Groups and Homomorphisms 386

Number Theory Revisited 393

10.1. Integral Solutions of Linear Equations 393
10.2. Solutions of Congruence Equations 395
10.3. Chinese Remainder Theorem 399
10.4. Properties of the Function <p 405
10.5. Order of an Integer 410

Recursion Revisited 4i8

11.1. Homogeneous Linear Recurrence Relations 418
11.2. Nonhomogeneous Linear Recurrence Relations 430
11.3. Finite Differences 440
11.4. Factorial Polynomials 444
11.5. Sums of Differences 455

Counting Continued 462

12.1. Occupancy Problems 462
12.2. Catalan Numbers 468
12.3. General Inclusion-Exclusion and Derangements 474
12.4. Rook Polynomials and Forbidden Positions 480

Generating Functions 494

13.1. Definining the Generating Function (optional) 494
13.2. Generating Functions and Recurrence Relations 496
13.3. Generating Functions and Counting 508
13.4. Partitions 515
13.5. Exponential Generating Functions 521
viii Contents

Graphs Revisited 528

14.1. Algebraic Properties of Graphs 528
14.2. Planar Graphs 551
14.3. Coloring Graphs 557
14.4. Hamiltonian Paths and Cycles 569
14.5. Weighted Graphs and Shortest Path Algorithms 578

T r e e s 590
15.1. Properties of Trees 590
15.2. Binary Search Trees 597
15.3. Weighted Trees 602
15.4. Traversing Binary Trees 613
15.5. Spanning Trees 620
15.6. Minimal Spanning Trees 642

N e t w o r k s 650
16.1. Networks and Flows 650
16.2. Matching 664
16.3. Petri Nets 672

Theory of Computation 68i

17.1. Regular Languages 681
17.2. Automata 687
17.3. Grammars 696

T h e o r y of Codes 708
18.1. Introduction 708
18.2. Generator Matrices 712
18.3. Hamming Codes 721

Enumeration of Colors 728

19.1. Burnside's Theorem 728
19.2. Polya's Theorem 733

Rings, Integral Domains,

and Fields 740
20.1. Rings and Integral Domains 740
20.2. Integral Domains 749
20.3. Polynomials 752
20.4. Algebra and Polynomials 759
 Contents i x

Group and Semigroup

Characters 769
21.1. Complex Numbers 769
21.2. Group Characters 770
21.3. Semigroup Characters 775

Applications of Number Theory 780

22.1. Application: Pattern Matching 780
22.2. Application: Hashing Functions 787
22.3. Application: Cryptography 794

Bibliography 801
Hints and Solutions to Selected Exercises A-l
Index 1-1