Solve Solids Handling Problems by Retrofitting1

by
Herman Purutyan,
Brian H. Pittenger
and
Dr. John W. Carson

some types (raw, unprocessed solids feedstock)

Most flow problems are caused by a funnel approaching 18 months. Once startup began,
flow pattern and can be cured by altering the poor performance continued to plague these
pattern to mass flow, which requires operations with capacity ranging between 40%
changing the hopper or feeder design. Other and 50% of design values.
methods to fix poor flow include mechanical
and chemical flow aids. Although considerable engineering resources
are usually allocated to processing concerns,
(e.g. reaction chemistry), design of material
In plants and processes involving solids, handling systems to prevent problems rarely
ineffective and unreliable handling systems are gets much attention. It is not uncommon to
often a primary cause of startup delays, process find, for example, a critical centrifugation step
inefficiencies, and equipment downtime. This is beset with problems because of a frequently
a major problem, and its extent was confirmed plugging transfer chute, or costly downtime (of
by a six-year study by the Rand Corp. of 40 the centrifuge and the whole process) due to a
solids processing plants in the U.S. and Canada plugged silo.
[1]. The findings revealed that 80% of all plants
studied experienced solids handling problems. Many, if not all, of these problems can be
Also, the affected facilities were slow in coming avoided by basing the design of solids handling
up to speed, with an average startup time for
1
Reprinted with permission from Chemical Engineering Progress, June, 2001. Copyright © 1998 American Institute of
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www.jenike.com
 Figure 1. Interlocking and cohesive arches are common
problems in silos.

systems on the flow properties of the bulk

materials being handled and processed through
them. However, in many cases, such systems
are designed using prior experience as a basis,
which unfortunately usually only points to what
does not work instead of what works best.
Other times, the design of the solids handling
system is left to the end of the process design,
and fitted into the space left over from the rest Interlocking arch Cohesive arch
of the processing equipment.

What if the equipment is already in place and

the process is limping along? Although it is
much easier to prevent solids handling problems
by using sound design methods at the outset,
there are a number of effective retrofits that can • Arching occurs when an obstruction in the
significantly improve equipment performance. shape of an arch or a bridge forms above the
Retrofitting is often more economical than outlet and prevents any further material
completely replacing the faulty equipment, or discharge. It can be an interlocking arch, where
living with the problem. The exact choice of a the particles mechanically lock to form the
retrofit will obviously depend on the nature of obstruction, or a cohesive arch. An interlocking
the problem, process, product, and constraints. arch occurs when the particles are large
A broad overview of retrofit options is compared to the outlet size of the hopper. A
discussed in this article, following a discussion cohesive arch happens when particles pack
of common problems encountered when together to form an obstruction (Figure 1).
handling bulk solids.
• Ratholing can occur in those silos where flow
Common flow problems takes place through a channel that forms within
the material. If the material has sufficient
While handling problems can be encountered in cohesive strength, once the channel is emptied,
a variety of equipment, the most common occur no more discharges (Figure 2).
in silos.
Erratic flow is the result of obstructions
(The terms silo, bin, tank, vessel, and bunker are alternating between an arch and a rathole. A
interchangeable. Silo will be used throughout rathole may collapse due to an external force,
this article to represent such equipment. Hopper such as vibrations created by a train or a fork-
is the portion of a silo in which the cross-section lift operating nearby, or a flow-aid device such
changes, such as a cone, wedge, pyramid, or as an air cannon or a vibrator. While some
other shape.) material is likely to discharge, falling material
often impacts over the outlet and forms an arch.
The problems in silos consist of: An arch may break due to a similar external
force, and material flow may resume until the
No-flow from a silo is the most common and flow channel is emptied and a rathole is formed
often the most serious solids handling problem. again.
It can be due to either arching (bridging) or
ratholing.

2
 Figure 4.
2. A
Ratholing
rathole limits
can occur
the live
in those
capacity
silosofwhere
a silo.flow
takes place through a channel that forms within the
material.

Stagnant or density. Segregation or de-mixing of

ingredients may prevent a desired chemical
reaction, may cause an undesired reaction, or
Rathole may cause out-of-spec product, resulting in
costly product waste or rework. Segregation of
fines from the coarse may also have similar
effects [2] (Figure 3).

Associated flow problems

The following are some results of the flow

problems described above:

• Limited live capacity – Although the liquid

volume of the silo may be sufficient, its live
Flooding/flushing can occur when handling fine (usable) capacity can be severely limited due to
powders, such as pigments, additives, or stagnant material inside. If a rathole forms, then
precipitates. When a rathole collapses, the the live capacity of the silo effectively becomes
falling particles entrain air and become limited to the size of the rathole (see Figure 4);
fluidized. Since most solids-handling
equipment cannot handle fluids, material floods • Product degradation – When allowed to
through the feeder uncontrollably. The solid’s remain stagnant, some materials may cake,
bulk density can often undergo dramatic oxidize, spoil, or otherwise change physically or
variations, negatively impacting on downstream chemically;
packaging or processing equipment.
• Incomplete or non-uniform processing – In
Flooding can also occur when handling fine processing vessels where the product may be
powders (100 µm or smaller) in small vessels dried, cooled, reacted or purged of volatiles,
with high fill and discharge rates. In such flow problems give rise to incomplete
situations, the powder does not have sufficient processing which may severely reduce process
residence time to deaerate, resulting in flooding efficiency, result in quality problems, or even
through the feeder. lead to dangerous situations, such as when
combustible volatiles are only partially removed
Flow rate limitation is another problem unique from the product;
to fine powders. Most fine powders have very
low permeabilities and are affected by any
Figure 3. Sifting segregation can result in costly product
movement of interstitial air (or other gases). waste or rework.
The pressure gradients caused as a result of this
gas movement can retard discharge from a
hopper, significantly limiting the maximum
achievable rates.

Particle segregation can occur both when

handling blends consisting of a number of
ingredients, and when handling a homogenous
substance with a wide variation in particle size

3
 reliably, provided that all of the following four
• Vibration of structure – Material flow through conditions are met:
silos can result in significant vibrations, which
can be either high-frequency/low-amplitude or 1. Material handled consists entirely of coarse
low-frequency/high-amplitude [3]. If not particles – usually 1/4 in. or larger;
addressed, these vibrations can result in noise
that violates U.S. Occupational Safety and 2. Material is free flowing – particles do not
Health Administration (OSHA) regulations, or stick to each other;
worse, failure of the silo structure, or nearby
equipment; 3. Particles are non-degrading – spontaneous
combustion, spoilage, aging, or caking does not
• Structural failure – Structural failures can occur when particles are stagnant for extended
occur when large masses of material fall and durations; and
impact on the outlet of the silo and the feeder,
for example as a result of collapsing arches and 4. Particle segregation is not a concern.
ratholes. In addition, silo walls can dent or
wrinkle as a result of uneven loads imposed by Unless all of these four conditions are met, flow
asymmetric flow channels. These dents and related problems will occur in funnel flow silos.
distortions can significantly weaken a silo and To prevent such problems, a mass flow silo
can eventually lead to catastrophic failure [4,5]; should be used.
and
Mass flow is defined as the flow pattern where
• Excessive power requirement – Large amounts upon withdrawal of any material, all of the
of stagnant material over a feeder can contents of a silo move (Figure 6). Mass flow
significantly increase the power required to
operate the feeder, in addition to contributing to
Figure 5. Funnel flow occurs when the sloping hopper
some of the other problems already discussed. walls of a silo are not steep enough and smooth enough for
particles to flow along them.
Flow patterns

Most of the problems discussed above occur in Moving

silos where flow takes place through a channel

formed within the bulk solid. This describes a
funnel flow pattern, in which some material
moves while the rest remains stationary during
discharge from the silo (Figure 5). Funnel flow
occurs when the sloping hopper walls of a silo
are not steep enough and smooth enough for
particles to flow along them. Particles slide on
themselves rather than the hopper walls, and an
internal flow channel develops.

Funnel flow silos often have flat bottoms or

very shallow hopper angles. They may be used

Stagnant
4
occurs when sloping hopper walls are smooth The most cost-effective retrofit option will
enough and steep enough for particles to slide depend on the flow properties of the material
along them. This type of flow eliminates and the types of constraints that are imposed on
ratholing and associated problems of flooding the design. In general, retrofit options consist of
and stagnant material, as well as maximizes the the following:
usable capacity of the silo.
• Hopper modifications;
A third flow pattern, expanded flow, is a • Use of inserts;
combination of mass flow and funnel flow. An • Feeder modifications;
expanded flow silo consists of a lower section • Flow aids (mechanical and chemical);
that is in mass flow and an upper section that is • Air permeation systems; and
funnel flow (Figure 7). It is typically used to • Fluidization.
overcome ratholing in large silos by using the
mass-flow section to enlarge the flow channel Hopper modifications
diameter such that a rathole cannot form. To
use expanded flow, the material must be non- If the problem is caused by funnel flow,
degrading, segregation must be unimportant, modifications to the hopper to convert it to mass
and the particles must be coarse enough not to flow have high probability of success. The
become fluidized. Unless these three conditions problems that can be solved by this approach are
are met, expanded flow should not be used. flow stoppages or erratic discharge due to
arching and ratholing, flooding or flushing of
RETROFIT OPTIONS fine powders, certain types of segregation,
incomplete or non-uniform processing, silo

Figure 6. In mass flow, all of the contents of a silo move Figure 7. An expanded flow silo consists of a lower
upon withdrawal of any material. section that is in mass flow and an upper section that is
funnel flow.

Exceeds critical
rathole diameter

Funnel
flow
Mass
flow

5
 Figure 9. A typical wall friction test result from the Jenike
Shear Tester.

vibrations, and
φ' =structural problems.
Wall friction angle, deg Material in the ring is pushed along the
stationary wall surface, and the shear force is
To achieve mass flow, two conditions must be measured as a function of applied normal force.
met as a minimum:
Shear
stress, A typical wall friction test result is shown in
psf sloping walls of the hopper must be φ'
1. The steep
1
Figure 9. The applied normal pressures are
enough and must have sufficiently low friction plotted on the horizontal axis, and the measured
to allow particles to flow
φ'
2
along them; and shear values on the vertical axis. Wall friction
0 angle, φ', is then defined as the angle formed by
2. The hopper opening must be large enough to drawing a straight line from the origin to a point
0 Normal pressure, psf
overcome arching. on the curve. φ' is another way of expressing
the coefficient of friction (µ = tan φ').
Flow along walls
Once the wall friction angles have been
One or more of the following modifications to measured, hopper angles for mass flow can be
the hopper may be considered to achieve flow determined using a series of design charts
along hopper walls: change inner hopper originally developed by Jenike [6]. A typical
surface, the hopper slope, or the hopper design chart for a conical hopper geometry is
geometry. shown in Figure 10. This is an example chart
and should not be used for design. Complete
Before modifications are made, the flow sets of design charts are given in Ref. 6.
properties of a material must be determined.
With respect to flow along hopper walls, the In Figure 10, the hopper angles from vertical,
critical property is friction that develops θc, are plotted along the horizontal axis. The
between the bulk solid and the hopper wall wall friction angles, φ', are on the vertical axis.
surface (wall friction). Wall friction of a The chart contains three regions: mass flow,
material can be easily measured in a laboratory funnel flow, and an uncertain region (which is,
using a Jenike Shear Tester (Figure 8), a small in fact, a margin of safety).
sample of the bulk solid, and various wall
surfaces. When considering retrofitting an existing
hopper, the wall friction tests should be
The test is conducted by first placing the bulk conducted on Figure
a number ofto candidate wall
Figure 10. Data from 9 are used determine
solid in a retaining ring on a flat coupon of wall surfaces,
design which
charts for may
setting include
hopper anglesliners such
for mass as ultra-
flow.
material. Then, various normal forces are high molecular-weight polyethylene, θsmooth or
applied by placing weights on the cover. c
40°
Funnel or coated).
Figure 8. A Jenike Shear Tester determines friction between a solid and a wall surface (uncoated
flow
30°
Normal Pressure = Weight/Area
20° Cover
Bracket φ' Mass
flow Ring Uncertain
10°

0°
Shear Stress =
Force/Area
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°

Bulk Solid Sample of Wall Material

θ c
6
 Figure 11. Plane flow geometry is a more robust design,
capable of handling wider variations in material
characteristics.
polished stainless steel sheets, or coatings such
as various epoxies, polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE), and others.
L/W ≥ 2
Changing the hopper wall surface can be an
option in converting a hopper to mass flow if
one of the surfaces tested has a wall friction θp
angle that results in mass flow at the existing
L W
hopper angle.
Chisel Hopper

Example 1 – A silo with a 20-deg. from vertical

conical hopper exhibits funnel flow. The
hopper is constructed from mill finish (No. 1)
stainless steel plate. A wall friction test on this
L/W ≥ 3
wall surface using the bulk solid handled, shows
that wall friction angle φ' is 30 deg. The
combination of these two numbers plots a point θc
θp
within the funnel flow region of the design
chart, which confirms the observation. Another L W
test conducted on a No. 2B-finish stainless steel Transition Hopper
sheet shows that the wall friction angle is
20 deg. The combination of this wall friction
and the hopper angle plots a point within the wall friction angle would result in mass flow.
mass-flow area of the design chart. Thus, lining Thus, cutting off the existing hopper and
the existing hopper with a No. 2B finish installing a new, 22-deg.-from-vertical hopper
stainless steel sheet will convert the silo to mass coated with the epoxy tested will convert the
flow. silo to mass flow.

It is not always possible to find a hopper surface Making a hopper steeper is not always an option
that results in mass flow at the given hopper due to, for example, headroom constraints. If
angle. In this case, another option is to increase mass flow must be achieved in the existing
the slope of the hopper. This may need to be headroom, another option is to replace a conical
done in combination with changing the hopper hopper with a plane flow hopper in which
surface. convergence is on two opposing sides only, and
the outlet is elongated such as a wedge or
Example 2 – A silo with a 30-deg. from vertical transition hopper. The sloping sidewalls of a
conical hopper exhibits funnel flow. The plane flow hopper can be made 10- to 12-deg.
hopper is constructed from carbon steel plate. less steep than a cone with the same inner
Tests on various wall materials show the lowest surface and still achieve flow along its walls. In
wall friction angle to be 20 deg. (on a particular addition, theory shows that in plane flow there
epoxy coating). The design chart shows that a is no sharp boundary between the mass flow and
20-deg. wall friction angle and a 30-deg. hopper the funnel flow regions, so that mass flow is still
angle still will result in funnel flow. However, possible to the right of the boundary in the
if the hopper could be steepened to 22 deg. from design charts. This makes the plane flow
vertical, then a wall surface having a 20-deg. geometry a more robust design, capable of
handling wider variations in material

7
characteristics. Typical plane flow hoppers are
shown in Figure 11. The second type of arching, namely cohesive
arching, can be analyzed by measuring the
Example 3 – A silo with a 35-deg. from vertical cohesiveness of the material. If, at any given
conical hopper exhibits funnel flow. The point, the cohesive strength of a material
hopper is constructed from carbon steel plate. exceeds the stresses imposed on it, then a stable
Tests on several wall materials show the lowest arch will form and flow will stop. To prevent
wall friction angle to be 20 deg. The design arching, it is necessary to ensure that the
chart shows that a 20-deg. wall friction angle stresses acting on the material are always
and a 35-deg. conical hopper still will result in greater than its cohesive strength.
funnel flow. A 22-deg. or steeper cone is
required for mass flow. However, a transition Cohesive strengths of most materials are a
hopper with 35-deg. sidewall angles will result function of consolidating pressures. To
in mass flow, within the existing hopper height. illustrate this, let’s hypothetically assume that a
Thus, replacing the existing hopper with a new bulk solid is confined in a cylinder with
transition hopper with 35-deg. side walls will frictionless walls. This bulk solid is
convert the silo to mass flow. consolidated by placing a uniform pressure on
its top surface, P1. After some period of time,
In general, when using a plane flow hopper, if the consolidating pressure is taken off the solid,
the end walls are converging, the length of the and the walls of the cylinder are removed
outlet must be at least three times its width. For without disturbing the column of material.
vertical end walls, for example when a chisel Once the material is unconfined (i.e. the walls
hopper is used, a minimum length-to-width ratio are removed), pressure is once again applied to
of 2:1 is sufficient. the top surface, increasing in magnitude until
the column gives out at a failure pressure, F1.
Going from a circular outlet to an elongated This failure pressure is, in effect, the material’s
outlet will likely require a change in the feeder cohesive strength at a consolidating pressure of
as well. Changes in feeder design are addressed P1 .
later in this article.
Given the obvious limitations of this test (such
Overcoming arching as frictionless walls and a self-sustaining
column of material), it cannot be used to obtain
In addition to modifications to ensure flow cohesive strength values for design. Instead, a
along hopper walls, mass flow requires that the Jenike Shear Tester, for example, can be used
hopper has an outlet large enough to overcome [7] (Figure 12). Normal forces are applied to
arching. As shown in Figure 1, two types of the cover to consolidate the material, similar to
arches are possible: interlocking and cohesive.
Figure 12. A Jenike Shear Tester is used to find the
the wall friction tests, and the force required to
Figure 13. Typical Flow Function of a solid as determined
Tocohesive
overcome interlocking
strength of a solid. arches requires that by shear the material
Jenike Shear Tester. is measured. The result of
the diameter of a circular opening be at least 6 this test is a relationship of cohesive strength to
Normalparticles
to 8 times that of the largest force handled. consolidating pressure, called a "Flow
Cohesive Strength, F

Additional considerations may be necessary Cover for Function," as shown in Figure 13.
flaked or stringy materials. Ring

Bulk solid
Shearing
force
Major Consolidating Pressure, P1
Base
8
 hopper to get mass flow; however, this will limit
Once a material’s Flow Function has been the feeder choices. Another option is to replace
determined, minimum outlet sizes to overcome the conical hopper with a transition hopper with
arching can be calculated through a series of a 12 in. wide by 36 in. long outlet.
design charts created by Jenike [6].
Combatting ratholing
Typically, the minimum outlet diameter
required to prevent arching across a circular Whether a rathole will form in a silo is also a
outlet is roughly twice the minimum width function of cohesive strength. A rathole will
required for a slotted outlet. For example, if the develop if the cohesive strength of the material
minimum outlet diameter to prevent arching is is greater than the stresses acting on the
calculated to be 12 in., a 6-in. wide slotted outlet boundary of a flow channel. Cohesive strength
(and at least 18 in. long) is sufficient to prevent of most materials increases with increasing
arching. consolidation pressure. Since consolidation
pressure experienced by a bulk solid is a
It should be noted that given the same size function of the size of a silo, the tendency for a
outlet, a bulk solid is more likely to arch in a material to rathole increases with increasing silo
funnel-flow hopper than in a mass-flow one. size. On the other hand, it is common to find
Therefore, modifying the hopper to achieve materials cohesive enough to form ratholes even
flow along hopper walls may be in itself in small silos (5-ft. dia. or less). (Note that
sufficient to overcome arching. Whether this is ratholes form only in funnel-flow silos.)
the case or not can be confirmed by checking
the minimum outlet requirements in mass flow Once the Flow Function of a material is
calculated using the cohesive strength test data. obtained, critical flow channel diameters to
overcome ratholing can be calculated in a
Example 4 – Arching and ratholing frequently similar manner to outlet sizes. This critical
occur in a silo with a 25-deg. from vertical diameter, DF, is calculated as a function of silo
conical hopper having a 12-in. dia. outlet. The size. To avoid ratholing in a funnel-flow silo,
hopper is constructed from mill finish (No. 1) the flow channel must be greater than DF,
stainless steel plate. Wall friction and cohesive which will ensure that the stresses at the
strength tests are performed on the material. boundary of the flow channel exceed the
Cohesive strength tests show that if handled in a strength of the bulk solid. The size of a flow
mass-flow hopper, the minimum outlet diameter channel is set by the hopper outlet, and is
to overcome arching is 12 in. If handled in a approximately equal to its diameter (if it is
funnel-flow hopper, the outlet must be 36 in. or circular) or the diagonal of a slotted outlet.
greater to overcome arching and ratholing. In
this case, modifying the hopper to achieve flow Example 6 – Ratholes form in a 25-ft. diameter
along hopper walls will solve the arching and silo, causing flow stoppages and, at times,
ratholing problems. uncontrollable fluidized discharge of material,
which occurs due to collapsing ratholes. The
Example 5 – Assume that, in the above example, silo cylinder is 35-ft. tall, followed by a conical
the cohesive strength tests reveal that the hopper extending to a 12-in. dia. outlet with a
minimum outlet required to prevent arching in a screw below.
mass-flow cone is 24 in. One option is to
increase the outlet size to 24 in. and modify the

9
Tests confirm that the 25-deg. from vertical
conical hopper fabricated using No. 1 mill finish Use of inserts
stainless steel plate results in funnel flow. The
least frictional of all the surfaces tested, a Inserts placed inside hoppers can be used to
polyethylene liner, requires 19 deg. from modify or alter flow in a silo. Early inserts
vertical to achieve mass flow. Given the size of consisted of inverted cones placed near the tops
the silo, it is not practical to replace the hopper of conical hoppers (Figure 14). In theory, under
with a steeper one. In this case, another option the right conditions. these inserts can force flow
to consider is expanded flow. along a portion of hopper wall. However, in
practice they rarely achieve flow along hopper
The 12-in. dia. outlet results in a flow channel walls. Nevertheless, if placed correctly, these
that starts at a 12-in. diameter and then expands inserts can increase the size of the flow channel,
somewhat upwards. Cohesive strength tests therefore activating more of the contents of a
show that the critical rathole diameter, DF, for silo. Thus if the only problem is one of limited
this material in a silo of this size is 6 ft. live capacity of a silo, there may be some merit
Therefore, ratholing can be overcome by cutting in considering such an insert. However, if
the existing hopper at a 6 ft. diameter and misplaced, these inserts can make problems
placing below this a 19 deg. from vertical worse by causing arching.
conical hopper lined with the polyethylene sheet
tested. This modification will result in mass Another type of insert consists of a hopper-
flow in the silo up to the top of the new hopper within-a-hopper, such as cone-within-a-cone, or
section, and funnel flow above. Note that if the wedge-within-a-wedge. (This design is
material is susceptible to segregation or patented.) These inserts can force material flow
degradation with time, then other problems may along hopper walls otherwise too shallow or too
persist even though this modification will result frictional for flow (see Figure 15).
in reliable discharge.

Figure 14. Inverted cone placed near the top of a conical Figure 15. Cone-within-a-cone insert forces material flow
hopper can modify or alter flow in a silo. along hopper walls otherwise too shallow or too frictional
for flow.

10
Example 7 – Particle segregation has been a This not only creates an explosion hazard, but
problem in a silo. Although well-blended also causes quality problems. In addition,
material is transferred to the silo, the discharge because of funnel flow, stagnant material in the
contains large amounts of fines at the beginning silo is causing cross-contamination between
and large amounts of coarse particles at the end batches.
of a run. The problem is caused by a funnel-
flow pattern that results in the center of the silo Converting the purge silo to mass flow ensures a
being discharged first, followed by the sides. uniform residence time, hence, uniform purging.
Note that if the bulk solid is susceptible to Mass flow also prevents stagnant material,
sifting segregation, the process of filling the silo therefore, significantly reducing cross-
will result in a higher concentration of fines in contamination across batches. In continuous
the center. If the silo is then emptied in a processes where a different batch is placed on
funnel-flow pattern, the center is withdrawn top of another, a certain amount of mixing
first, followed by the periphery. To remedy the occurs as the material flows through the silo.
situation, the flow must be converted to mass Ensuring a uniform velocity profile through the
flow, which results in the sides and the center silo can minimize this mixing and minimize
discharging roughly at the same time, thereby changeover waste.
reducing the impact of this side-to-side
segregation. Wall friction tests show that the existing hopper
slope is too shallow for mass flow regardless of
The silo consists of a conical hopper sloping at the surface. Since the silo is a pressure vessel,
35 deg. from vertical. Test results show that the any external change to the hopper would require
existing wall surface requires a 20-deg. conical extensive fabrication and retesting of the
hopper to achieve mass flow. Perhaps because structure. The most practical solution is to use a
of headroom limitations, the cost of replacing "hopper-within-a-hopper" insert to convert the
the hopper, or the downtime required, a new 20- flow pattern to mass flow, which also provides a
deg. hopper is not feasible. An alternative to uniform velocity (Figure 16).
this would be to place an 18-deg. cone inside the
hopper, forming a "cone-within-a-cone" system. Pup tent
This will force flow along the 35-deg. hopper
walls and convert the silo to mass flow. In Another type of insert, often referred to as a pup
addition, the use of this type of hopper insert tent, is useful in combining flow channels to
system results in more-uniform velocities in the overcome ratholing (Figure 17). The diameter
silo, which further reduce the impact of
segregation. A uniform velocity may also be
Figure 16. Retrofitted purge silo yields mass flow.
desirable in silos where residence time of the
bulk solid is important, such as in purge vessels,
or when cross-contamination as a result of
products’ mixing in the silo during discharge is
a concern [8].

Example 8 – Funnel flow in a purge silo used to

remove volatiles from granular polymers is
causing incomplete processing, resulting in the
volatiles being discharged with the material.

11
 Figure 17. A pup tent is useful in combining flow channels
to overcome ratholing.

feeder that withdraws material from only a part

of the outlet [9]. (A feeder is a piece of
equipment that is used to meter the discharge of
material from a silo.)

A common problem, especially when elongated

outlets are used, is the inability of a feeder to
activate the entire outlet. For flow to occur
from the entire length of the outlet, the feeder
must have a capacity that increases in the
direction of flow.

Two feeders commonly used with elongated

outlets are belts and screws. When using a belt
feeder, the increase in capacity is achieved by
using a tapered interface as shown in Figure 18.
The increasing capacity along the length is
of a flow channel created by combining two achieved by increasing size of the opening as a
flow channels is roughly equal to the sum of the result of the taper.
diameters of the individual flow channels. For
example, a pup tent could be used to combine With a screw feeder, the increase in capacity
the flow channels that form above two adjacent may be achieved through the use of a tapered
outlets of a silo to dramatically increase the flow shaft as shown in Figure 19a, or by increasing
channel size, to the point that a stable rathole the pitch in the direction of flow, starting from a
cannot form. half pitch and ending with a full pitch, as shown
in Figure 19b [10]. However, both of these
Pup tents can also be used to reduce loading on methods are limited to a length-to-screw
feeders with multiple screws. By carefully diameter of about 3:1 or less. For longer
placing small pup tents between the screws, the lengths, the increase from one flight to the next
solids pressure acting on each screw, and, becomes so small that, because of fabrication
hence, power requirements can be significantly tolerances, an increase in the direction of feed
lowered. Care must be taken, however, to avoid cannot be guaranteed.
formation of arches over the pup tents.

Feeder modifications Figure 18. A belt feeder increases in capacity in the

direction of flow by using a tapered interface.
In addition to the two requirements stated earlier
(flow along walls, and an outlet large enough to
overcome arching), mass flow also requires that
the entire hopper opening be active. Regardless
of the slope and the surface finish of the hopper hopper
above, if the outlet is partially blocked, funnel
flow will occur. The blockage of the outlet
could be caused by a lip or a ledge formed due
to flange mismatches, partially closed gates, or a

12
 Figure 19. Various methods for increasing capacity in the
flow direction for screw feeders.

first flight forward to the second flight, which,

having the same capacity, is filled with material
from the first flight. This prevents any more
material entering the flight from above, so the
A C material forward of the first flight remains
a. Tapered Shaft stagnant. This creates a flow channel over the
first flight, and if the material is cohesive, a
rathole forms when the flow channel is emptied.
(Structural failures have also occurred in a
number of cases as a result of the flow channel
which develops along the walls of the silo.)

B C The solution is to replace the feeder with a 14-

b. Increasing Pitch in. dia. mass flow screw feeder, as shown in
Figure 19c, placed in a U-trough. A mass-flow
screw feeder with a uniform increase in capacity
along the length of the outlet will activate the
entire outlet. A screw with a diameter equal to
the width of the slot ensures that the entire
A B C width of the slot is active, which is imperative to
c. Combination Mass-Flow Screw Feeder achieve mass flow. Note that the shallow
A = Conical Shaft and Constant Pitch (Feed Section) sidewalls of a V-trough prevent mass flow even
B = Constant Shaft and Increasing Pitch (Feed Section) if a mass flow screw and mass flow hopper are
C = Constant Shaft and Constant Pitch (Conveying used.
Section)
Rotary Valves
The combination of a tapered shaft and
increasing pitch sections is used to achieve Rotary valves are frequently used as feeders. In
length-to-diameter ratios of up to about 6:1. For some applications, these feeders also serve as a
the first half, a section with a tapered shaft and pressure seal, for example, feeding a pneumatic
half pitch is used, which is followed by an conveying line or a reactor at a higher pressure
increasing pitch section (Figure 19c). than the silo.

Example 9 – Arches and ratholes occur in a silo Rotary valves used as feeders below hoppers
with a wedge hopper. The hopper has a 14-in. often tend to withdraw material only from a part
wide by 6-ft. long outlet. A 6-in. dia. screw in a of the hopper outlet. As the rotor turns, its
V-trough (tapered trough) is used as a feeder. pockets begin to fill as they become exposed. If
The screw is constant diameter, constant pitch. the pocket fills with material before it travels the
entire length of the outlet, then mass flow is
The ratholes form over the back of the screw. hindered as a result of a partially active outlet.
Since the screw is constant pitch and constant
diameter, its capacity is equal to the capacity of To overcome this problem, a vertical section
the first flight, and is constant along its length. should be placed between the rotary valve and
The first flight withdraws material from directly the hopper outlet. Making this vertical section
above it, and becomes full. The successive approximately one dia. tall is typically sufficient
rotations of the screw convey the contents of the

13
to allow the material flow to expand so as not to quickly releasing a volume of high-pressure air
interfere with discharge from the hopper. or other gas into the bin (Figure 20). This
action creates a pressure front, which applies
When feeding into higher-pressure additional stresses on an arch in an effort to
environments, especially when handling fine break it.
powders, the effect of gas movement in the
system becomes significant. If a rotary valve is The size, number, and location of the air
not vented properly, gas leakage through the cannons required depend on the cohesive
valve into the silo can significantly reduce the strength of the material and the dimensions of
maximum rate at which material can exit the the silo. Once the material’s strength is
silo. The upward moving gas acts as a body measured, mathematical analyses can be used to
force on the powder, opposite to gravity, determine the specifics of the air cannons
retarding flow. In some cases, this gas backflow required.
can actually cause material to arch in the
hopper, completely stopping discharge. This While these devices are effective in breaking
problem can be avoided by providing proper arches that form after material has been stored at
venting to allow the gas to travel an alternative rest, if the problem is due to arch formation
path, and reducing the amount of gas leakage by during continuous flow, air cannons are at best a
properly maintaining the rotary valve [11]. band-aid solution, and an alternative means of
alleviating the problem should be considered
Use of flow aids such as previously mentioned.

Flow aids are devices or substances often used Air cannons are also ineffective in overcoming
to assist gravity in promoting material flow. ratholing. Once an air cannon is fired and a
Flow aids can be grouped in two classes: path is cleared from the air cannon to the
mechanical and chemical. Common mechanical rathole, any subsequent operation of that air
flow aid devices include air cannons, vibrators, cannon becomes useless, as air just travels
vibrating dischargers, and agitators. Chemical through the path without disturbing any
flow aids include powdered additives such as additional material. To disturb sufficient
fumed silica and magnesium stearate, or liquid material to actually collapse a rathole would
additives, such as freeze-conditioning agents. require an unreasonably large number of air
cannons. Even so, a collapsing rathole with
Mechanical flow aids: Air cannons large masses of material falling could cause

Flow properties of many materials change with

Figure 20. Air cannons quickly release a volume of high-
increasing time under pressure. For example, a pressure air or other gas into the bin, creating a pressure
bulk solid may flow out of a certain hopper front which applies additional stresses on an arch to break
reliably as long as discharge from the silo is it.
continuous. However, after stopping discharge
for some time, say overnight or over a weekend,
the same material may not flow as a result of an
arch that has formed.

Air cannons may be an excellent choice for a

situation such as this. These devices work by

14
structural damage to the silo and to the forces beyond gravity), such devices may
equipment below. exacerbate the problem.

Example 10 – Arches form in a silo every Vibrators are better used to reduce buildup in
Monday morning after a system has been shut chutes. By definition, chutes are surfaces on
down for the weekend. The silo consists of a which a bed of bulk solid slides, in contrast to
conical hopper with a 14-in. diameter outlet. hoppers, which are geometries 100% full of
Operators poke the silo with rods until flow is material. Such devices include cyclones and
established, after which the silo operates well dust collection hoppers, which act as chutes.
for the entire week.
Vibrating dischargers
Wall friction tests show that the silo’s hopper
section is sufficiently steep and has low enough Mounted at the outlet of a hopper, a vibrating
friction to provide mass flow. Cohesive discharger activates a large cross-section.
strength tests indicate that the minimum outlet Activation is achieved by an insert, commonly
size required to overcome arching during an inverted cone or a dish, that vibrates along
continuous flow in a mass flow silo is 10 in. with the outer shell in a gyratory motion caused
However, after three days at rest under pressure by a set of unbalanced rotating weights or a
in a silo, the cohesive strength increases such vertical motion by hydraulic or pneumatic
that the minimum outlet required to overcome actuators. Product flows around the insert into a
arching becomes 3 ft. 6 in. An air cannon conical section below, which typically operates
analysis shows that two air cannons placed at as a chute (Figure 21).
the 4 ft. diameter level are sufficient to
overcome arching after a weekend at rest. To the extent that it activates a large cross-
section, vibrating this device can be used to
Vibrators overcome a number of flow problems, provided
a few basics are adhered to.
Vibrators impart continuous body forces to the
material through the walls of the handling If a vibrating discharger is used at the outlet of a
equipment. These devices are often mounted on funnel-flow silo, then the flow channel created
the hopper sections of silos. Some models will approximate the size of the outlet (i.e., the
deliver low-frequency/high-amplitude forces, top diameter of the discharger). If this flow
much like a hammer blow. Others produce channel is larger than the critical rathole
high-frequency/low-amplitude forces through, diameter discussed above, then stable ratholes
for example, rotating a set of unbalanced should not form, even though the pattern is
masses.
Figure 21. A vibrating discharger activates a large cross-
The effect of such devices on most arching and section via an insert, commonly an inverted cone or a dish.
ratholing problems is minimal. The additional
force required is usually not delivered where it
is needed, namely at an arch or a rathole.
Furthermore, when dealing with pressure-
sensitive materials (those materials that exhibit
an increase in cohesive strength if subjected to

15
funnel flow. In this case, if segregation and occurred in a number of silos where the
degradation of the solid is not a concern, a discharger was not being vibrated.
discharger could provide reliable flow. If, on the
other hand, the flow channel is not large enough Agitators/flexible walls
to overcome ratholing, flow stoppages and other
flow problems related to funnel flow and Paddles, moving arms, and flexible walls are
ratholing will occur. sometimes effective in overcoming arching and
ratholing problems; however, these solutions are
It is possible to overcome this problem by typically limited to relatively small hoppers
ensuring that the hopper above the discharger is (several hundred pounds capacity), where solids
designed for mass flow. Since the discharger is pressures and the power required to operate
isolated from the hopper above, the vibrations them are small. A number of commercially
do not affect flow in the hopper, and procedures available feeders employ agitation effectively,
for obtaining mass flow, as described above, and are especially useful when low discharge
apply. rates are required with cohesive bulk solids.

Vibrating dischargers may cause more problems Chemical flow aids

than they solve if used with pressure-sensitive
solids. The energy input can actually pack A number of chemicals have been successfully
material and cause flow stoppages. With certain used as flow aids to alter the flow properties of
materials (this depends on the material and the the bulk solid handled. These additives, in
circumstances), distinct flow channels form in general, work by preventing the host particles
four quadrants of the outlet, caused by the insert from adhering to each other, which is
supports, and this can asymmetrically load the accomplished by coating the surface of each
silo above. Such loads can result in structural particle, removing free moisture, or preventing
damage to the silo [5]. the freezing of that moisture. Generally, these
additives are dry powders, such as silicates,
A distinction must be made between a stearates, or phosphates. Their effectiveness
discharger and a feeder. A discharger is a and the amount required can easily be
device that promotes flow, but does not control determined by conducting cohesive strength
its rate. A feeder, on the other hand, is used to tests on samples prepared in a lab.
meter bulk solids. Therefore, if the rate of
discharge is to be controlled, a feeder must be Some of the considerations of this approach
used below the discharger. In this case, care include the compatibility of the additive with
must be taken that material does not fill the area the material handled and the process, the cost of
between the discharger and the feeder and get the additive, and the cost of an additional
compacted by vibrations. handling system to deliver and mix the additive.
Generally, this approach is considered to be one
Vibrating dischargers should be operated on an of the last resorts in solving a flow problem.
on/off cycle as suggested by the manufacturer,
even if the bulk solid seems to flow without any Liquid additives have been used as freeze-
vibrations. Not operating the vibrating conditioning agents to prevent freezing of moist
discharger can easily result in distinct flow materials that are subjected to low temperatures,
channels, which can load the silo such as coal transported by rail or ores stored
asymmetrically. Structural failures have outside.

16
 This may also be an option if the material
Air permeation systems handled is fine and easily fluidizable.
Fluidization is especially useful where high
When handling fine powders (e.g. all particles discharge rates (e.g., 1,000 ton/h) are required.
100µm and smaller), the effect of interstitial air Gas injected through permeable membranes
or gas can be significant. As briefly discussed near or at the bottom of the hopper is used to
above, one of these effects is limiting the fluidize the contents of a silo. This changes the
discharge rate. As the material moves from the characteristics of the bulk solid almost
top of the silo toward its outlet, the pressures completely, making it behave more like a fluid.
exerted on it at first increase, resulting in a rise
in bulk density. This causes the particles to The gas must be uniformly distributed through
become packed closer together, which forces the material to prevent localized fluidization or
out a certain amount of gas between them. As flow channels. If a fast-flowing flow channel or
the material continues to move through the a rathole develops, then most of the fluidization
hopper toward the outlet, the consolidating gas moves through that path, losing its ability to
pressures are reduced and the bulk density fluidize any more material. Additional
decreases. This can result in a slight amount of considerations when evaluating this as an option
vacuum between the particles in the hopper, include the need for dry or conditioned gas, the
which often creates a gas flow inward through requirement of an additional system to handle
the outlet, counter to the solids flow. As the rate and clean the gas after use, and discharging with
of discharge increases, so does the amount of low density and fluctuating rate.
vacuum; hence, the body forces exerted on the
material by the counter-flowing gas go up.
Eventually, this body force becomes equal and
Figure 22. Typical placements of air permeation systems.
opposite to the force of gravity, setting the Care must be taken to ensure that the system does not
upper limit to material discharge. prevent mass flow.

The flow rate that is limited by this mechanism

can be increased by supplying gas into the
material using an air-permeation system, which
reduces the amount of gas flow in through the
outlet.

Typical placements of air permeation systems

are shown in Figure 22. Care must be taken to
design to ensure the gas permeation system does
not prevent mass flow. The air requirements for
these systems are a function of the permeability
of the bulk solid and are typically very low.
Injecting excessive amounts of air can result in
fluidization of the hopper’s contents, and may
lead to flooding.

Fluidization

17
To sum up understanding the problem and its causes, as
well as the flow properties of the bulk solid
While it is preferable to avoid handling handled, should form the basis for any retrofit to
problems by designing equipment based on flow alleviate the problem.
characteristics of a bulk solid, problems in
existing equipment can be alleviated. The Literature cited
majority of flow problems are caused by the
existence of a funnel-flow pattern. These [1] Merrow, E. W., "Estimating Startup Times
problems can be solved by altering the flow for Solids-Processing Plants," Chem. Eng., p.
pattern to mass flow, which requires changing 89 (Oct. 24, 1988).
the hopper or feeder design as outlined above.
In addition, a number of other methods, such as [2] Carson, J. W., et al., "Understanding and
the use of mechanical and chemical flow aids, Eliminating Particle Segregation Problems,"
fluidization, and air permeation, may be useful Bulk Solids Handling, 6, pp. 139-144 (Feb.
means of addressing these problems. 1986).

A quick guide to the potential effectiveness of [3] Purutyan, H. , et al., "Identifying and
most of the various options presented is given in Controlling Silo Vibration Mechanisms,"
Table I. The listing is intended as a starting Powder & Bulk Eng., Part I, 8 (11), pp. 58-65
point in considering alternatives, and is in no (Nov. 1994); Part II, 8 (12), pp. 19-28 (Dec.
way definitive or all-inclusive. However, 1994).

Table I. A quick guide to the effectiveness of the various retrofit options

Problem
Solution Arching Ratholing Flooding Rate Limiting Segregating

Hopper Modifications
Liner Good Good Good Poor Good
Transition Hopper Good Good Good Fair Good
Expanded Flow Good Good Good Poor Poor
Larger Outlet Good Fair Poor Good Poor

Inserts
Inverted Cone Poor Fair Fair Poor Fair
Hopper-In-Hopper Good Good Good Poor Good
Pup Tent Poor Fair Poor Poor Poor

Feeder Modifications
Mass-Flow Screw Good Good Good Good Fair
Mass-Flow Belt Interface Good Good Good Good Fair
Vented Rotary Valve Good Poor Poor Good Poor

Flow-Aid Devices
Air Cannon Good Fair Poor Poor Poor
Vibration Fair Fair Poor Poor Poor
Agitation Good Good Fair Poor Fair

Aeration
Air Permeation Poor Poor Poor Good Poor
Fluidization Good Fair Good Good Poor
18
 in 1991 he has been involved in designing
[4] Jenkyn, R. T. and D. J. Goodwill, "Silo reliable handling systems for a variety of
Failures: Lessons to be Learned," Eng. Digest
applications, ranging from degassing/purging
(Sept. 1987).
vessels for olefins to storage and feeding
[5] Carson, J. W. and R. T. Jenkyn, "Load systems for cement plants. He has extensive
Development and Structural Considerations in experience with a wide range of difficult-to-
Silo Design," paper presented at Reliable Flow handle materials such as synthetic gypsum,
of Particulate Solids II, Oslo, Norway (Aug. kaolin clay, fertilizers and titanium dioxide.
1993). Purutyan regularly lectures on the subject of
bulk solids handling through AIChE and to
[6] Jenike, A.W., "Storage and Flow of
Solids," Bulletin No. 123, University of Utah individual companies. He has authored a
Engineering Experiment Station, Salt Lake City number of articles on the subject, and is the
(Nov. 1964). holder of two patents. He received both his B.S.
and M.S. from Worcester Polytechnic Institute
[7] American Society for Testing and and an MBA degree at Babson College.
Materials, “Standard Shear Testing Method for
Bulk Solids Using the Jenike Shear Cell,”
ASTM Standard D6128, ASTM, Philadelphia. B. H. PITTENGER is a senior consultant at
Jenike & Johanson, Inc. Westford, MA (Phone:
[8] Carson, J. W., et al., “Bulk Solid Purge 978/392-0300; Fax: 978/392-9980; e-mail:
and Conditioning Vessels,” Chem. Proc., 58 (8), [email protected]). Since joining J&J,
pp. 77-80 (Aug. 1995). he has designed bulk-solids storage and
handling systems ranging from conditioning
[9] Carson, J. W., and G. Petro, “Feeder
Selection Guidelines,” Chem. Proc. 1997 silos for food and chemicals, to simple and
Powder & Solids Annual, pp. 40-43 (1977). accurate batch dosing systems in processing
plants, to developing anti-segregation systems
[10] Marinelli, J., and J. W. Carson, "Use for powdered metals and pharmaceuticals. He
Screw Feeders Effectively," Chem. Eng. previously worked at General Electric (GE) as a
Progress, 88 (12), pp. 47-51 (Dec. 1992). production, systems, and quality engineer, and
as a shift and plant supervisor. With GE's
[11] Carson, J. W., "Interfacing Bulk Solids
Conveyors with Upstream Equipment," AIChE Corporate Audit Staff, he provided systems
Symposium on Solids Conveying and designs to many GE businesses, including
Separation, AIChE, New York (Nov. 18, 1987). Quartz Products, Plastics Europe, Aerospace,
and Power Generation. He has published many
papers and lectures on solids flow for several
[Biographies updated, 2003] professional organizations. Pittenger has a B.S.
from Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, and an
H. PURUTYAN is a vice-president at Jenike & MS from Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Johanson, Inc. Westford, MA (Phone: 978/392-
0300; Fax: 978/392-9980; e-mail: J. W. CARSON is president of Jenike &
[email protected]). Since joining the firm Johanson, Inc. Westford, MA (Phone: 978/392-

19
0300; Fax: 978/392-9980; e-mail:
[email protected]). He joined the firm in
1970 and has been active in research,
consulting, and management. Carson is the
author of over 50 technical papers and articles in
the areas of bin loads, flow of fine powders,
vibration, and using computers to analyze solids
flow. He lectures extensively on the topic of
fine powder storage and flow of solids, and
devotes much of his time to consulting with
clients. He received a BS in mechanical
engineering from Northwestern University, a
PhD from MIT, and is a member of AIChE.

20