BSI Standards Publication: Application of Fire Safety Engineering Principles To The Design of Buildings

PD
7974‑1:2019
BSI Standards Publication
Application of fire safety engineering

principles to the design of buildings
Part 1: Initiation and development of fire within the enclosure

Licensed copy:SWECO, 02/12/2020, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
of origin (Sub-system 1)
PD 7974‑1:2019 PUBLISHED DOCUMENT
Publishing and copyright information
The BSI copyright notice displayed in this document indicates when the document was last issued.
© The British Standards Institution 2019
Published by BSI Standards Limited 2019
ISBN 978 0 580 97726 8
ICS 13.220.20; 91.040.01
The following BSI references relate to the work on this document:

Committee reference FSH/24
Draft for comment 18/30373549 DC
Amendments/corrigenda issued since publication
Date Text affected
© THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PUBLISHED DOCUMENT PD 7974‑1:2019
Contents Page
Foreword iii
Introduction 1
1 Scope 1
2 Normative references 1
3 Terms, definitions and symbols 2
4 Design approach 6
4.1 Uncertainty 6
4.2 Competence 6
4.3 Framework 6
4.4 Design assessment and basis of design fire selection 7
4.5 Building characteristics 7
4.6 Fuel load characteristics 7
4.7 Environmental influences 8
5 Inputs 8
Figure 1 — Sub-system 1 inputs 8
6 Outputs 8
Figure 2 — Sub-system 1 outputs 9
7 Classification 9
7.1 General 9
7.2 Ignition 9
7.3 Flame spread 10
7.4 Fire growth 10
Figure 3 — Conceptual illustration of continuous fire growth 10

7.5 Fully developed 10
Figure 4 — Fire growth in an uncontrolled room fire 11
Figure 5 — Illustration of a travelling fire and ceiling jet [1] 12
7.6 Decay 12
7.7 End stage 12
8 Design calculations 13
8.1 General concepts/principles 13
8.2 Ignition 13
8.3 Characteristics of flames 14
Table 1 — Empirical correlations 15
8.4 Fire growth 17
Table 2 — Standardized alpha t-squared growth rates 17
Table 3 — CT constants for different configurations 18
8.5 Fully-developed fires (inclusive of decay) 19
Figure 6 — Two indicative travelling fire arrangements with fire travel path lengths and
path widths 23
8.6 Post-flashover fires (inclusive of decay) 24
Figure 7 — Example gas time-temperature curves for post-flashover fires as a function of opening
factor and fire load density with normal enclosure linings 25
8.7 Nominal time–temperature curves 25
8.8 Production of species 26
8.9 Activation of heat detector devices and automatic fire suppression systems 29
8.10 Effect of automatic fire suppression systems on fire conditions 29
Annex A (informative) Reference data 30
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Table A.1 — Convective fractions for different fuels [12] 30

Table A.2 — Standardized fire growth rates [BS ISO/TR 13387‑2] 30
Table A.3 — Fire growth rates for some discrete fuel assemblies 30
Table A.4 — Heat release rates per unit area for different occupancies [41] 31
Table A.5 — Fire load density for different occupancies 31
Table A.6 — Effective emission co-efficient, K, for various materials 32
Annex B (informative) Reference data for smoke and toxic gas yields 32
Table B.1 — Composition of test materials 32
Table B.2 — Toxic gas yields, effective heats of combustion and oxygen consumption under
well-ventilated and under-ventilated combustion conditions for a range of common polymeric
materials from the PD ISO/TS 19700 tube furnace [34] 33
Table B.3 — Smoke mass conversion factor [56] 34
Table B.4 — Ranges of carbon monoxide yields, smoke particulate yields, smoke specific extinction
areas and mass optical densities for cellulosics and plastics under well-ventilated and under-
ventilated flaming combustion 35
Table B.5 — Carbon monoxide yields, smoke particulate yields, smoke specific extinction areas
and mass optical densities for well-ventilated combustion from Tewarson [57] and Mulholland [35] 36
Annex C (informative) Example configuration factors 37
Bibliography 38
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, and inside front cover, pages i to iv, pages 1 to 41, an inside back cover and
a back cover.
ii © THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Foreword
This part of PD 7974 is published by BSI Standards Limited, under licence from The British Standards
Institution, and came into effect on 31 March 2019. It was prepared by Technical Committee FSH/24,
Fire safety engineering. A list of organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on
request to its secretary.
Supersession
This part of PD 7974 supersedes PD 7974-1:2003, which is withdrawn.
Relationship with other publications

This Published Document is one of a series of documents published under the Fire Standards Policy
Committee, and is a supporting document to BS 7974, Application of fire safety engineering principles
to the design of buildings — Code of practice.
Other parts in this series, PD 7974, include:
Part 2: Spread of smoke and toxic gases within and beyond the enclosure of origin (Sub-system 2)
Part 3: Structural response and fire spread beyond the enclosure of origin (Sub-system 3)
Part 4: Detection of fire and activation of fire protection systems (Sub-system 4)
Part 5: Fire and rescue service intervention (Sub-system 5)
Part 6: Human factors: Life safety strategies – Occupant evacuation, behaviour and condition
(Sub-system 6)
Part 7: Probabilistic risk assessment
Information about this document

This is a full revision of the document, and introduces the following principal changes:
• consolidation of all principal design fire development considerations into sub-system 1 which
are subsequently called upon as an input for other sub-systems (e.g. 2 and 3);
• greater clarity regarding the phases of fire development;
• design correlations that logically follow a conventional fire timeline of events;
• where practicable, explicit acknowledgements of the inherent assumptions underpinning design
correlations;
• further generalization of design approximations for growing fires;
• revised correlations with respect to ignition, heat flux from localized fires, pre-flashover
compartment fire temperatures, and sprinkler-controlled fires;
• the introduction of a travelling fire framework for fully developed fires that might not develop
to flashover
• improved reference data for smoke and toxic gas yields; and
• removal of some reference data as it is either too generalized or out of date.
Use of this document

As a guide, this part of PD 7974 takes the form of guidance and recommendations. It should
not be quoted as if it were a specification or a code of practice and claims of compliance cannot
be made to it.
© THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED iii

This publication is not to be regarded as a British Standard.
Presentational conventions
The guidance in this Published Document is presented in roman (i.e. upright) type. Any
recommendations are expressed in sentences in which the principal auxiliary verb is “should”.
Commentary, explanation and general informative material is presented in smaller italic type, and does
not constitute a normative element.
Where words have alternative spellings, the preferred spelling of the Shorter Oxford English
Dictionary is used (e.g. “organization” rather than “organisation”).
Contractual and legal considerations

This publication does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a contract. Users are
responsible for its correct application.
Compliance with a Published Document cannot confer immunity from legal obligations.
iv © THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Introduction
This Published Document is one of a series of documents intended to support BS 7974. The Code of
Practice provides a framework for developing a rational methodology for design using an alternative
fire safety engineering approach through the application of scientific and engineering principles to
the protection of people, property and the environment from fire.
The Published Documents (PDs) contain guidance and information on how to undertake quantitative
and detailed analysis of specific aspects of the design. They are a summary of the "state of the art"
and it is intended that they be updated as new theories, calculation methods and/or data become
available. They do not preclude the use of appropriate methods and data from other sources.
BS 7974 can be used to define one or more fire safety design issues to be addressed using fire
safety engineering. The appropriate PDs can then be used to set specific acceptance criteria and/or
undertake detailed analysis.
An alternative holistic fire safety engineering (FSE) approach can often provide a more fundamental,
bespoke, safer and/or economical solution than more generic approaches to fire safety. It might,
in some cases, be the only viable means of achieving a satisfactory standard of fire safety, where
buildings are neither common nor straightforward.
Alternative fire safety engineering approaches can have many benefits. The use of BS 7974 is
intended to facilitate the practice of fire safety engineering and in particular it:
• provides the designer with a disciplined approach to fire safety design;
• allows safety levels of specific designs to be assessed, and quantified where appropriate;
• allows the safety levels for alternative designs to be compared;

• provides a basis for selection of appropriate fire protection systems;
• provides opportunities for innovative design;
• provides information on the management of fire safety for a building.
Fire is a complex phenomenon and there are still gaps in the available knowledge. When used by
suitably qualified persons experienced in fire safety engineering (see 4.2), this series of Published
Documents might provide a means of establishing adequate levels of fire safety economically without
imposing unnecessary constraints on aspects of building design.
1 Scope
This Published Document provides guidance on evaluating fire growth and/or size within the
enclosure of fire origin, as well as enclosures to which the fire has subsequently spread.
The characteristics and products of the design fire for any particular scenario are influenced by a
number of factors, including building design, environmental influences, potential ignition sources
and location, types of combustible materials, distribution and arrangement of combustible materials,
ventilation conditions and other events occurring during the fire.
The determination of the characteristics and products of the design fire from ignition through to
decay is used by other sub-systems.
2 Normative references
There are no normative references in this document.
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3 Terms, definitions and symbols

For the purposes of this Published Document, the following terms and definitions apply.
3.1 Terms and definitions

3.1.1 ambient condition
property of the surroundings outside the influence of a fire
3.1.2 axisymmetric plume

plume of combustion products and entrained air rising above a fire source where the air is entrained
symmetrically towards the axis
3.1.3 ceiling jet

flow under a ceiling arising from the deflection of a rising plume of hot gas and smoke from a fire
3.1.4 compartment
enclosed space, which may be subdivided, separated from adjoining spaces within the building by
elements of construction having a specified fire resistance
3.1.5 design fire

hypothetical fire having characteristics to serve as the basis of design
3.1.6 enclosure
volume defined by bounding surfaces, which may have one or more openings
3.1.7 equivalence ratio

fuel/air ratio divided by the fuel/air ratio required for a stoichiometric mixture
[SOURCE: BS EN ISO 13943:2017, 3.97]
3.1.8 fire load energy

calorific energy of all of the contents within a compartment and structure that can be
involved in a fire
3.1.9 fire load energy density

fire load energy per unit area
3.1.10 fire safety engineering

application of scientific and engineering principles to the protection of people, property and the
environment from fire
3.1.11 heat of combustion

energy which a unit mass of material or product is capable of releasing by complete combustion
3.1.12 heat release rate

fire energy output per unit time
3.1.13 heat release rate density

heat release rate per unit area
2 © THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

3.1.14 sensitivity analysis

calculation of changes in outputs for variations in an input parameter of interest
3.1.15 stoichiometric oxygen demand

amount of oxygen needed by a material for complete combustion
NOTE This is the stoichiometric oxygen-to-fuel mass ratio.
3.1.16 total fire load

sum of the calorific energies, which could be released by the complete combustion and all the
combustible materials in a space including the facing of the walls, partitions, floors and ceilings
3.1.17 virtual origin

theoretical point from which the plume above the flames appears to originate
3.1.18 zone model

theoretical simulation of the whole system characterizing the enclosure fire by a series of relatively
few separable component processes and control volumes
NOTE Each component is represented by an equation or estimation formula.
3.2 Symbols
For the purposes of this Published Document, the following symbols and relevant units for
correlations apply. The end user should verify dimensional consistency in inputs and outputs when
applying the correlations presented herein.
Symbol Unit Description

Afire m2 Area of the fire
Afloor m2 Total internal floor area of the enclosure
Amax m2 Maximum area of burning for a fuel-controlled fire
ASEA m 2
Smoke extinction area
At m 2
Total interior surface area of the interior boundaries of the enclosure, less
ventilation openings
Av m2 Area of the vertical ventilation opening
α kW∙s-n Fire growth rate parameter
C (m/s) 0.5
Conduction factor
cig J∙kg ∙K -1 -1
Specific heat capacity of the ignition material
cp,0 kJ∙kg-1∙K-1 Specific heat capacity of ambient air
cp,s kJ∙kg ∙K -1 -1
Specific heat capacity of the enclosure boundaries
cs g∙m -3
Smoke particulate mass concentration
denc m Distance front-to-back of the enclosure
D m Fire diameter
δ m Thickness
δs m Thickness of the enclosure boundaries
εf – Emissivity of the flame
ε smoke – Proportion of smoke particulate mass yield to fuel mass loss
FTP – Flux-time product

g m∙s-2 Acceleration due to gravity
hk kW∙m-2∙K-1 Effective heat transfer coefficient of the enclosure
Δ Hc kJ∙kg -1
Total heat of combustion


ΔHc,eff kJ∙kg -1
Effective heat of combustion of fuel
Hv m Height of ventilation opening
kig W∙m ∙K -1 -1
Thermal conductivity of the ignition material
ks kW∙m ∙K -1 -1
Thermal conductivity of the enclosure boundaries
K m-1 Effective emission coefficient
Km m ∙g 2 -1
Specific extinction coefficient
L m Length (i.e. maximum distance) of the enclosure
LA m Rectangular fire source dimension (shorter side)
LB m Rectangular fire source dimension (longer side)
Lf m Length of fire travel path
Ls m Smoke measurement path length
λf m Thickness of the flame
 ′′
m kg∙s-1∙m-2 Mass burning rate of fuel
me kg Equivalent fire load as wood
f
m kg∙s-1 Mass loss rate of fuel
i
m kg∙s-1 Mass rate of species production
 max
m kg∙s-1 Maximum mass burning rate
 part
m kg∙s-1 Mass rate of smoke particulate production
mr kg Mass remaining at time t in burnt area

mtot kg Total initial mass in burnt area
n – Growth power of fire

η – Flux-time product index
Ov m1/2 Opening factor
q crit
′′ W∙m-2 Critical heat flux
q e′′ W∙m-2 Exposed heat flux
q R′′ kW∙m-2 Radiative heat flux
Q kW Total heat release rate
Q ′′ kW∙m-2 Total heat release rate per unit area
– Dimensionless heat release rate

Q *
– Modified dimensionless heat release rate for line-shaped fire
Q line
*
– Modified dimensionless heat release rate for rectangular fire footprint

Q rect
*
Q c kW Convective heat release rate
Q c′ kW∙m-1 Convective heat release rate per unit length
′′
Q fd kJ∙m-2 Fire load energy density
Q fd kJ Fire load energy
Q fo kW Heat release rate to cause flashover temperature rise
Q max kW Maximum heat release rate
Q R kW Radiative heat release rate

Q steady kW Steady phase heat release rate
Q ( t − t act ) kW Heat release rate post sprinkler activation
kW Heat release rate at the time of activation

Q ( t act )
RTI (m∙s)0.5 Response time index of heat sensing element
r m Radial distance from the ceiling impingement point
ρ0 kg∙m-3 Density of ambient air
ρs kg∙m-3 Density of the enclosure boundaries
ρ kg∙m-3 Density of the material

s m∙s -1
Constant fire spread rate along a linear path
σ kW∙m-2∙K-4 Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10-8 kW∙m-2⋅K-4)
ϕ – Equivalence ratio
Δt s Time (change)
t s Time
tact s Sprinkler activation time
tb s Local burning time
tf s Fire exposure time
ti s Incipient phase of the fire’s development
tig s Time to ignition
tm min Time for implantation in nominal fire curves
tsteady s Duration of the steady burning phase
ttotal s Total burning duration of the fire

ΔTe °C Change in temperature of heat sensing element
T0 K Ambient air temperature
Tf K Mean temperature of the flame

Tg °C Gas temperature
ΔTg °C Change in gas temperature
Tg(max) °C Upper bound maximum post-flashover enclosure temperature
Tig K Ignition temperature
Ts K Smoke temperature
θg °C Temperature rise above ambient in the upper gas layer
θ cj °C Temperature rise in the ceiling jet
θ cl °C Mean centreline excess gas temperature
χc – Proportion of convective heat release rate to total heat release rate
χR – Proportion of radiative heat release rate to total heat release rate
u m/s Velocity of gases in proximity to heat sensing element
ucl m∙s -1
Mean centreline gas velocity
ucj m∙s-1 Gas velocity in the ceiling jet
φ – Configuration factor
w ′′ mm∙s-1 Water spray density

wenc m Width of enclosure wall containing ventilation openings
Yco – Proportion of CO yield mass to fuel mass loss


Yi – Proportion of species yield mass to fuel mass loss
Ψ0 – Stoichiometric oxygen-fuel-mass ratio
z m Height above the fuel surface

z0 m Height of the virtual source above the fuel surface
zf m Flame height
zH m Height of the ceiling above the fire source
4 Design approach
4.1 Uncertainty
The complexity of the interactions between people, buildings and fire coupled with gaps in
knowledge means that there will be a degree of uncertainty associated with any fire safety design.
Uncertainties can exist in underlying science and research, theoretical models, experiments and tests,
design, systems and component performance and reliability, and construction and operational quality.
Part of the designer’s role is to identify uncertainties and adequately mitigate any associated risk to
as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). It is likely that the greater the risk, the more significant the
mitigation required. Mitigation can include increased conservatism, redundancy, robustness and/or
reliability. Assessing the adequacy of mitigation is likely to involve sensitivity analysis. The objective
of a sensitivity analysis is to establish the impact on the output parameter(s) caused by variation in
the input parameter(s); it is not intended to check the accuracy of the results.
All relevant uncertainty should be identified, documented and adequately addressed. This should
include documenting any limitations on the building in order to communicate residual risks and
areas requiring additional monitoring and/or risk mitigating measures.
Where it is intended to specifically quantify the level of safety achieved by a design, the probabilistic
risk assessment (PRA) methods set out in PD 7974-7 should be used. The tools in this document may
be applied in a probabilistic manner through the identification of appropriate stochastic input values
for relevant variables.
4.2 Competence
The application of FSE should be entrusted to suitably qualified and experienced people at all stages.
BS 7974:2019, 4.1, discusses competence in the context of fire safety engineering.
4.3 Framework
A framework of the application of engineering approaches to fire safety in buildings is
provided in BS 7974.
The basis of any assessment or sub-assessment can be empirical or theoretical, the accuracy can
be approximate or realistic, the analysis can be deterministic or risk-based and the measure can be
qualitative or quantitative. Regardless of what combination is adopted, the design assessment, basis
of design fire selection, etc., should be consistent and compatible.
The quantitative analysis necessary as part of the design is divided into a number of separate parts or
sub-systems. Each sub-system can be used in isolation when analysing a particular aspect of design
or they can all be used in combination as part of an overall alternative fire engineering evaluation
of a building.
Sub-system 1 concentrates on the quantification judgements that can form the part of the design
process in which the initiation and development of the fire are defined. The calculation methods and
data contained in this sub-system are included with the known limitations. Alternative calculation

methods are not precluded and might be required. Satisfactory justification of any calculation
method, adopted data or approach selected should always be provided.
4.4 Design assessment and basis of design fire selection

As part of the design process, it is necessary to assess the adequacy of the trial fire safety design in
achieving the fire safety goals. Often, this involves selecting one or likely multiple separate design
fires against which the performance of the design can be tested. To be valid, design fires should be:
a) consistent with the fire safety goals. For example, equivalency to a fire resistance rating in
accordance with BS 476‑20 requires the adoption of the ISO 834 standard fire curve;
b) compatible and/or conservative in the context in which they are being used. For example, for a
‘realistic’ assessment, design fires should either be compatible with the expected fire dynamics
or conservative relative to the expected fire dynamics;
c) sufficiently onerous to mitigate any uncertainty and/or to adequately test the trial fire safety
design with the fire safety goals.
Additional information on design fires can be found in BS ISO 16733‑1.
4.5 Building characteristics

Information on building characteristics will be provided from the qualitative design review (QDR)
and consideration in terms of the potential consequences should be given to factors influencing the
fire growth, spread and extinguishment process which, for example, include:
a) building:
1) dimensions of construction/building;
2) geometry of construction/building;
3) nature of construction of building (materials and methods).
b) enclosure:
1) wall and ceiling linings;
2) ventilation conditions (micro, macro, natural and mechanical);
3) fuel load;
4) potential ignition sources.
c) active measures (if not included as part of the trial fire safety design);
1) active fire barriers;
2) smoke ventilation;
3) suppression;
4) manual firefighting.
The building characteristics might be dynamic and change in accordance with events during the
fire scenario, for example, doors opening or closing, active systems activating, windows breaking,
openings occurring in enclosures, etc.
4.6 Fuel load characteristics

Information on fuel load will be provided from the QDR and consideration in terms of the potential
consequences should be given to the contributions from all relevant factors influencing the fire
growth and spread process, which include:

a) type of combustibles;
b) quantity of combustibles;
c) location of combustibles;
d) arrangement of combustibles.
The fuel load characteristics might be dynamic and change in accordance with events during the
fire scenario, for example, pyrolysis, delamination of materials and composites, liquefaction of
combustibles, fluid fuels flowing, etc.
4.7 Environmental influences

Information on environmental influences will be provided from the QDR and consideration should
be given to how environmental conditions (which might be dynamic) can influence fire growth,
spread and the extinguishment process, mass and heat transfer, and enclosure pressure. These
might include:
a) internal and external temperatures;
b) internal and external air movement;
c) internal and external oxygen concentrations.
5 Inputs
The inputs given in Sub-system 1 are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 — Sub-system 1 inputs
6 Outputs
The outputs given in Sub-system 1 are illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 — Sub-system 1 outputs
7 Classification
7.1 General
The time evolution of a fire can be described according to the following stages:
a) ignition;
b) flame spread;
c) growth;
d) fully developed fire: localized, flashover or travelling;
e) decay; and
f) end stage: burnout, self-extinction, or suppression.
The stages of fire development noted are not necessarily in chronological order. The transition
between stages can be impacted by, for example, sudden changes in ventilation conditions, the
exposure of new fuel (e.g. due to the delamination of timber linings, failure of plasterboard, etc.), or
spread into enclosures, where fires can undergo transition to flashover.
7.2 Ignition
Ignition is the process by which a fire in an enclosure starts. It can lead to smouldering or flaming
fires, but the emphasis in this document is on flaming fires because they are generally quicker to
grow, more powerful in terms of energy released and generate more smoke. Smouldering fires can
undergo transition into flaming fires.
Ignition can be piloted, which requires the presence of a pilot flame, spark or hotspot. Alternatively,
ignition can be spontaneous (also sometimes called auto-ignition), or as the result of self-heating.
Generally, piloted ignition requires smaller ignition sources to be initiated compared with
spontaneous ignition.

Potential sources of ignition include a smouldering source, naked flame, hot surface or hotspot,
electric discharge, heaters, hot works, cookers, engines and boilers, lighting equipment, friction
between surfaces and chemically reactive material.
Consideration should be given to the most probable ignition source, location and fuel likely to be first
ignited. Secondary ignition of additional fuel items is part of fire growth.
7.3 Flame spread

Flame spread is the means by which a fire spreads progressively over a fuel surface. The surface can
be oriented horizontally, vertically or at some intermediate alignment. The flame spread can be over
multiple surfaces within the same fuel item, e.g. wood pallets.
During flame spread, there is heat transfer from the flames to the fuel item which causes pyrolysis
ahead of the spread. The pyrolysis gases burn in the flame, the heat from which in turn produces
more pyrolysis. The spread of flame can be aided by natural buoyancy or external air flow, e.g. wind
or HVAC system.
7.4 Fire growth

The growth stage of the fire is characterized by an increasing rate of heat release as flame spreads
over burning fuel items or ignites other fuel items located in the vicinity (secondary ignition).
The rate of growth is a function of several variables but the most important ones are the fuel type,
geometry, ignition properties, and orientation of fuel surfaces. Growth can be either by smouldering
or flaming, but flaming growth is much quicker. Fire growth during the pre-flashover stage is
illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3 — Conceptual illustration of continuous fire growth
7.5 Fully developed

7.5.1 General
Fully developed is the stage where a fire has developed to its full potential given its enclosure(s).
The fire has reached its maximum potential heat release rate, assuming there are no external fire
suppression influences. This stage can be generally characterized by the three scenarios described in
7.5.2 to 7.5.4.

7.5.2 Localized fire

When the fire only burns a small-size fuel item relative to the size of the enclosure it might remain
localized because no other fuel items are present or because no other fuel items are sufficiently close
for secondary ignition.
The fire then produces two regions inside the enclosure: the near field is in the vicinity of the flames
(a smaller region where the highest temperatures are located), and the far field is created by the
smoke (the larger region where lower temperatures are located).
7.5.3 Flashover
Flashover is the sudden transition from gradual fire growth to the involvement of all fuel items
that have yet to ignite in the enclosure which then start to burn near simultaneously. Flashover is
illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4 — Fire growth in an uncontrolled room fire
For a ventilation-controlled regime, the available ventilation imposes an upper limit on the
energy release. During the course of the fire there might be an increase in ventilation. This could
be due to windows breaking, fire service intervention or the operation of air handling or smoke
extract systems.
For a fuel-controlled regime, combustibles are able to burn freely and the rate of heat release is
limited by the amount, type and surface of the burning items.
7.5.4 Travelling fire

A travelling fire burns over a limited area of fuel but moves through the enclosure as flames spread
over time from one fuel item to another. A travelling fire occurs inside enclosures which are typically
large or not ventilation constrained. The size of the fire is dictated by the fuel area burning between
the leading edge of the flames (where flame spread occurs) and the trailing edge of the flames (where
burnout takes place). A travelling fire can be generally conceptualized as a localized fire that moves.
As such, a travelling fire produces two regions inside the enclosure, the near field and the far field.
See Figure 5.

Figure 5 — Illustration of a travelling fire and ceiling jet [1]
7.6 Decay
The decay stage of a fire is when it is running out of fuel and there is less of it left to burn than during
the fully developed stage. The rate of heat release of the fire and the average temperature within the
enclosure typically undergo a continuous decrease over time.
7.7 End stage

7.7.1 Burnout
Burnout is a possible end point to a fire after the decay stage caused by the fuel in the enclosure being
completely consumed.
7.7.2 Self-extinction
Self-extinction is a possible end point to a fire while fuel is still available in the enclosure. This
extinguishment mechanism occurs because remaining fuel items cannot support continued burning,
or there is a lack of oxygen, or the heat transfer from the fire and the enclosure is insufficient to
cause secondary ignition of remaining fuel items. It could occur at the growth, fully developed or
decay stages.
7.7.3 Suppression/intervention
The intervention of people (e.g. the fire service) or of an automatic system can affect the growth of
a fire, reduce the rate of heat release to some lower value or initiate a period of decay that can also
result in eventual extinction of the fire. Intervention can affect the fire during its growth phase or
once a fire has reached its fully developed phase.

8 Design calculations
8.1 General concepts/principles
8.1.1 Heat release rate
The total amount of heat (energy) released by a fire per unit of time depends on its heat of
combustion and the mass of fuel burned per unit time such that:
Q = m
 f ∆H c,eff (1)
NOTE 1 Limits. This equation assumes complete combustion of the vaporized fuel. In vitiated conditions, there
is significant incomplete combustion, particularly for ceiling fires and caution should be used when applying this
formula to calculate heat release rates.
NOTE 2 Due to a limited availability of fuel or oxygen, the heat release rate will converge on a maximum
(see 8.5.2).
8.1.2 Radiative and convective heat release rate

The convective heat output is given by:
Q C = χ c Q (2)
Correspondingly, the radiative heat output is:

Q R = (1 − χ c ) Q (3)
where the convective fraction χ c can range from 0.4 to 0.9 depending upon the fuel. Data for
particular fuels can be found in the SFPE Handbook of Fire Engineering [2], with some indicative
values given in Annex A. However, for many typical applications, a value of χ c ≈ 0.7 is appropriate.
8.1.3 Heat release rate density

The fire heat release rate can be estimated from the heat release rate per unit area, and the area of
burning using:
Q = Q ′′Afire (4)
8.1.4 Dimensionless heat release rate

Dimensionless heat release rate for a circular fire source is:
Q
Q * = (5)
ρ 0 c p,0T0 g 1/2 D 5/2
8.2 Ignition
8.2.1 Steady state
The ignition of fuels depends on a number of factors including the physical state of the fuel (gas,
liquid or solid), the heating mechanisms (via radiation, convection and/or conduction), the presence
of a separate pilot source such as a spark or ember and whether the ignition is flaming, spontaneous
or smouldering. For more detail regarding the topic see the Ignition Handbook by Babrauskas [3] or
the relevant chapters in the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering [2].

In many applications the time to ignition of solid materials is of particular interest. Formulae (6) to
(8) are for the piloted ignition of solid materials exposed to a constant heat flux according to Mikkola
and Wichman [4]. The time to ignition depends on the thermal thickness of the material which relates
to the heat losses from the sample surface. A material that is 2 mm thick or less can be assumed to be
thermally thin, a material thicker than 1.5 cm can be treated as being thermally thick and thickness
in-between these two limits taken to be thermally intermediate.
For a thermally thick material the time to ignition can be found using:
2
 Tig − T0 
t ig ≈ k ig ρ c ig   (6)
 q ′′ − q ′′
 e crit 
The time to ignition of a thermally thin material can be found using:

 Tig − T0 
t ig ≈ ρ c ig δ   (7)
 q ′′ − q ′′
 e crit 
and the time to ignition of a thermally intermediate material can be found using:
3/2
 Tig − T0 
t ig ≈ ρ c ig k ig δ   (8)
 q ′′ − q ′′
 e crit 
Values for kig and cig are apparent thermal properties obtained from relevant ignition experiments.
Similarly, q crit
′′ needs to be obtained from experimental data or references for the given material.
8.2.2 Transient
The flux-time product (FTP) method, initially proposed by Smith and Satija [5] and subsequently
modified by Shields, Silcock, Murray [6] and Toal [7], can be used to determine the piloted ignition of
materials exposed to time varying incident heat fluxes. The FTP is calculated in a piece-wise fashion (i
= 1, 2, … m) such that:
m
η
FTP = ∑ (q e′′ − q crit
′′ ) ⋅ ∆t (9)
i =1
and the exposure heat flux q e′′ exceeds the critical heat flux q crit
′′ of the material. When the cumulative
FTP exceeds the target FTP value for the material then ignition occurs. The η index corresponds to
the thermal thickness such that η = 2 for thermally thick materials, η = 1 for the thermally thin case
and η = 3/2 for the thermally intermediate situation when following the method of Mikkola and
Wichman [4]. However, the work by Shields and co-workers [6] suggests that η could assume any
value in the range between 1 and 2 depending on the specific conditions.
NOTE The limits for the three thermal conditions are not precisely defined in Mikkola and Wichman [4] such that
the limits given here are an interpretation of values quoted from their analysis.
8.3 Characteristics of flames

8.3.1 Virtual origin
For normal atmospheric conditions and fire sources which do not have substantial in-depth
combustion, i.e. where ~2/3 or greater of the volatiles released undergoes combustion above the fuel
array, an estimation of a fire’s virtual origin can be obtained using [8]:
z 0 = −1.02D + 0.083Q 2/5 (10)

8.3.2 Mean flame heights
8.3.2.1 Square and circular fire sources

Flame heights for diffusion flames can be described as a function of Froude number or some of its
variations (non-dimensional heat release rate, in this case). Table 1 gives three of the more common
empirical correlations (normalized relative to fire diameter), with information regarding the
experiments underpinning the correlations, and the Q * range over which the correlations have been
observed as valid.
Table 1 — Empirical correlations
Reference Zf /D Other comments

Q * Range A)
Zukoski [9] Natural gas: 10 cm to 50 cm diameter
Q * < 0.15 40Q *2
burner
2
0.15 < Q * < 1.0 *
3.3Q 3
2
1 < Q * < 40 *
3.3Q 5
Thomas [10] 10 cm to 200 cm side wood cribs
0.75 < Q * < 8.8 3.4Q *0.61
∆Hc = 18.6 MJ/kg
Heskestad [11] Gas, liquids and solids
0.12 < Q * < 12 , 000 *
2
3.7Q 5 − 1.02 ∆H c / ϕ 2 = 3 185 kJ/kg of air
A)
Represent the ranges presented by the originators. Further research might have been conducted that
extends the valid range of application.
Where fire diameters are large, i.e. at a Froude number corresponding with Q * ″ 0.01 ≤ 0.01,
continuous flame cover over the fuel bed does not occur. Instead, discrete flames of reduced height
(relative to the diameter) are observed [12].
8.3.2.2 Rectangular and line fire sources
The correlations noted in 8.3.2.1 may be adopted with a modified Q * for rectangular and
line sources.
For a rectangular source of dimensions L A × LB (shorter and longer sides, respectively) Q * should be
modified per Formula (11):
Q
Q rect
*
= (11)
ρ 0 c p,0T0 gL1A.5 LB
For a line source, LB is set to unity, leading to Formula (12):

Q l
Q line
*
= (12)
ρ 0 c p,0T0 gL1A.5
Flame height is directly related to mass entrainment. Grove and Quintiere [13] indicate that line
source flame heights will generally be conservatively estimated based upon axisymmetric
correlations (i.e. 8.3.2.1) where the aspect ratio of the source is not less than L A / LB = 0.4 . Data was
taken from a variety of sources. Fuels include methanol, propane, methane, acetone, hydrogen and
wood and produce fires ranging from 2.79 kW∙m-1 to 342 kW∙m-1.

For the subsequent calculation of flame height from a rectangular or line source, formula (13) is given
by Yuan and Cox [14]:
Zf
= 3.46Q rect/line
*
(13)
LA
Formula (13) holds for Q l > 30 kW/m.
8.3.3 Plume temperature and velocity

The mean centreline (or axial) excess gas temperature and mean centreline gas velocity for an
axisymmetric plume can be given by Formulae (14) and (15) [8]:
1/3
 T 
−5/3
θ cl = 9.1  0  Q c2/3 ( z − z 0 ) (14)
 gc 2 ρ 2 
 p,0 0 
1/3
 g  −1/3
ucl = 3.4   Q c1/3 ( z − z 0 ) (15)
 c p,0 ρ 0T0 
 
For atmospheric conditions where T0 = 293 K, g = 9.81 m∙s-1, c p,0= 1.0 kJ∙kg-1∙K-1 and ρ0 = 1.2 kg∙m-3
Formulae (14) and (15) reduce to:
θ cl = 25Q c2 / 3 ( z − z0 )
−5 / 3
(16)
ucl = 1.03Q c1/ 3 ( z − z0 )

−1/ 3
(17)
Formulae (16) and (17) cease to be valid near the mean flame height and below for fire sources
without substantial in-depth combustion, i.e. where:
( z − z0 ) / Q c2/5 < 0.15 m∙kW-2/5 to 0.20 m∙kW-2/5 (18)
Below this limit, experiments indicate a convergence on a temperature rise deep in the flame of
c. 900 K. Fires with very low flame heights (Zf/D) can generally be expected to produce lower
maximum mean temperatures. Atypical fuel types can also produce higher maximum mean
temperatures.
8.3.4 Heat flux from flames

The radiant heat flux from a flame depends on a number of factors and is represented via the
common Boltzmann equation:
q′′R = φε f σ Tf 4 (19)
The configuration factor φ enables the calculation of radiant intensity at a point remote from the
radiator. For the purposes of calculating φ , the flame is typically approximated to be a simple
geometric shape such as a rectangle, cylinder or cone. If the flame is influenced by external air flows
or fire induced flows, the appropriate configuration factor can be found in McGuire [15], Drysdale
[12] or the SFPE Handbook [2]. Common configuration factors are given in Annex C.

For a luminous flame, the emissivity may be taken as:
ε f = 1 − exp ( − K λf ) (20)
This simple method for calculating emissivity should not be used for large fires as it assumes that
temperature and soot concentration are uniform [12]. Therefore, if the flame thickness λ f > 1 m and
the flame is luminous, it is common to assume black body behaviour and that the emissivity of
the flame ε f = 1 .
Calculation of radiative heat fluxes from flames requires as input data flame emissivity, effective
values of flame temperature and that the flame be idealized as a simple geometric shape, such as a
rectangle, cylinder or cone. A simpler model, based upon radiation propagating from a point source
has been shown to be reliable in many cases [16], i.e.:
χ R Q
q R′′ = (21)
4π d 2
with d the distance from the point source to the receiver (m) and χ R the proportion of the total heat
release rate that is radiative, i.e. 1 − χ c .
The model has been shown to be accurate where d/D > 2.5, and presumes that the receiver is
perpendicular to line of sight originating from the point source, yielding a maximum q R′′ .
8.4 Fire growth

8.4.1 Characteristic fire growth curve — alpha tn
The growth phase of a fire can be characterized according to the generalized relationship below:
n
Q = α ( t − t i ) (22)
The constants α and n are readily derived from experiments, e.g. data is available via Mayfield and
Hopkin [17]. The correlation is only valid prior to the fire becoming fully developed. Table 2 provides
general constants for standardized growth rates.
Table 2 — Standardized alpha t-squared growth rates
Growth rate Time to reach 1 055 kW α n
s kW∙s-2
Slow 600 0.0029 2
Medium 300 0.0117
Fast 150 0.0469
Ultra-fast 75 0.1876
Differing fuel configurations can be better idealized using a different power, e.g. fires involving racked
goods may exhibit growth behaviour better characterized by n > 2. It should be noted that n need not
be an integer. Annex A contains sample data for a limited range of items.
8.4.2 Enclosure temperatures

There are several approximate methods to predict the temperature of the hot upper layer in an
enclosure fire prior to flashover and where upper layer temperatures can be expected to be relatively
uniform. Such methods do not predict the local temperatures, which might be used to determine
when a detector or sprinkler will be triggered. The relationship shown in Formula (23) was originally
derived from experimental data, by McCaffrey, Quintiere, Harkleroad [18] and then extended by work

from Mowrer and Williamson [19], Karlsson [20], Azhakesan et al. [21] and Azhakesan and Quintiere
[22]. This method uses a zone model concept and assumes a uniform hot gas layer that collects under
the ceiling. It can be used to calculate the temperature rise above ambient in the enclosure provided
that the upper gas layer does not exceed between 500 °C to 600 °C, based on the assumption that
flashover can occur in this range:
1/3
 Q 2 
θg = CT   (23)
 A H 1/2 h A 
 v v k t 
Formula (23) can be used for enclosures with several wall openings by summing the Av H v 1/2 values
for each vent.
NOTE 1 The enclosures assessed in [6] were between 0.3 m to 2.7 m high by 0.14 m2 to 12 m2 floor area.
CT is an empirical constant that can be used for different fire configurations, see Table 3.
Recommended values are given below based on the original research studies, as summarized in [23]:
Table 3 — CT constants for different configurations
Configuration CT
Discrete, centred 6.85
Discrete, against wall 8.78
Discrete, corner 12.22
Linings, walls only 17.14
Linings, wall and ceiling 14.28
For the case where the thermal penetration time for the enclosure boundaries is greater than the fire
exposure time, i.e. heat transfer is transient or non-steady:

1/2
 k s ρ s c p,s 
hk =   (24)
 tf
 
or for the case where the thermal penetration time for the enclosure is significantly shorter than the
fire exposure time, i.e. heat transfer is steady:
ks
hk = (25)
δs
McCaffrey, Quintiere, Harkleroad [18] provide further discussion on the estimation of thermal
penetration time.
Formula (23) can be used for enclosures using a mixture of different boundary construction materials
by summing the hk and individual areas of the various wall, ceiling and floor elements.
For a conservative design approach with respect to maximum temperature rise, the steady state
condition can be considered, i.e. Formula (25). The non-steady condition can be evaluated by
adopting the greater of Formulae (24) and (25).
NOTE 2 Limits. Care has to be taken:
a) when the fire enclosure has more than one opening;
b) for a very well-insulated fire enclosure or in other situations when hk → 0;
c) for complicated fire enclosure geometries;
d) in large enclosures in which significant fire growth has occurred before the combustion products have exited
the enclosure.

8.4.3 Ceiling jets
8.4.3.1 General
When a fire plume impinges on a ceiling, the flow of gases turns to move horizontally beneath the
ceiling and then to spread to other areas of the building. The velocity and temperature of these gases
typically need to be known to enable detector and sprinkler activation times to be assessed since
this is where such devices are usually installed. Under horizontal ceilings the gases initially move
away from the impingement point in an axisymmetric ceiling jet until they impinge bounding walls,
beams etc. The depth of ceiling jets is typically between 5% to 12% of the height of source-to-ceiling
fire plume. The maximum gas velocities and temperatures occur within this jet at approximately 1%
of the total fire source-to-ceiling height, below the ceiling. In the particular circumstances of narrow
channels, such as corridors or under beamed ceilings, a new two-dimensional ceiling jet becomes
established.
The properties of the ceiling jet are dependent upon the surface roughness of the ceiling together
with heat losses to it. Most of the methods available in [24] calculate the maximum temperature and
velocity in the ceiling jet. If detectors or sprinkler heads are situated substantially lower than where
the maximum temperature and velocity occur, then longer activation times should be expected.
For time-dependent design fires, the Formulae (26) and (27) can be assumed to be quasi-steady
and the time-varying rate of heat release inserted into the appropriate formula. As an alternative,
computational fire models can be of particular assistance with these calculations.
8.4.3.2 Axisymmetric ceiling jet

The maximum temperatures and velocities in an unconfined axisymmetric ceiling jet under a smooth
horizontal ceiling produced by a steady fire are [2]:
−0.6545
Q c2/3  r  r
θ cj = 6.721   for > 0.134 (26)
5/3 z − z zH − z0
( zH − z0 )  H 0 
and
−1.0739
Q c( 1/3 )
 r  r
ucj = 0.2526   for > 0.246 (27)
1/3 z − z zH − z0
( zH − z0 )  H 0 
NOTE The ceiling jet formulae assume that the jet is moving through ambient air and is not submerged within a
ceiling smoke layer. Existing correlations in 8.3.3 for the maximum temperature and velocity in the plume can be
r
used when are less than or equal to the limits given.
ZH − Z0
8.5 Fully-developed fires (inclusive of decay)
8.5.1 Transition to flashover
8.5.1.1 Conditions for flashover

For enclosures without combustible linings, flashover can be assumed to occur when sustained
flaming from fuel items reaches the ceiling and the average temperature of the hot gas layer is
between 500 °C and 600 °C. These conditions are generally sufficient to increase the likelihood of
piloted ignition and enhance flame spread over the surface of combustible items that are not yet
burning in an enclosure. If flames from the combustibles do not reach the ceiling, or the average gas
layer temperature remains below 500 °C, flashover can be assumed to be unlikely.

8.5.1.2 Heat release rate (HRR) at flashover

After flashover, the rate of heat release will increase rapidly until it reaches the maximum value. To
simplify design, the growth period between the onset of flashover and the maximum heat release
rate is usually ignored, and it can be assumed that when flashover occurs the rate of heat release
instantaneously increases to the maximum value. This assumption is conservative in relation to its
estimation of the time to reach the maximum heat release rate.
Two methods of calculation can be used:
a) Method 1
Thomas [25] developed an analysis basing the heat flow through an opening on a mass inflow
expressed in terms of ventilation control. The rate of heat release required for flashover to occur,
which is based upon the assumption that flashover occurs at an upper layer temperature rise
of 600 °C, is:
Q fo = 7.8 At + 378 Av H v 1/2 (28)
b) Method 2
By choosing a temperature rise of 500 °C as the flashover temperature and substituting this into
Formula (23), McCaffrey et al. [18] derived the expression for the necessary heat release rate to cause
this temperature rise for discrete fires away from the walls of an enclosure. This formula differs from
Method 1 [Formula (28)] in that it includes explicitly heat transfer through the enclosure boundaries.
( )
1/2
Q fo = 610 hk At Av H v 1/2 (29)
NOTE 1 Limits. McCaffrey et al. [18] stated that they had not included “extensive data” from ventilation-
controlled fires, and that all data were for fires near the centre of an enclosure. They do not give any data on the
fire perimeters.
NOTE 2 The enclosures were in the range of 0.3 m to 2.7 m high by 0.14 m2 to 12 m2 floor area. Almost all the
openings were taller than they were wide, and that some were very narrow indeed. It is, therefore, significant that
McCaffrey et al. [18] included a caution that their correlation might be less relevant for “very different” experiments.
NOTE 3 Limits. Formulae (28) and (29) are only valid when a two-directional flow has been established in the
vertical ventilation opening(s) i.e. the formulae are not applicable to the smoke-filling phase of an enclosure
fire process. The models assume a hot gas layer of uniform temperature. They are not applicable to fire process
controlled by ventilation. Care has to be taken:
a) when the fire enclosure has more than one opening;
b) for a very well-insulated fire enclosure or in other situations when hk → 0;
c) when fire growth is extraordinarily fast;
d) for fires in corners or adjacent to a wall;
e) for complicated fire enclosure geometries.
In addition, the models are based on experiments with wall material of relatively high thermal inertia and can be
less conservative for highly insulated fire enclosures.
Caution should be used with these formulae and they should only be used where an enclosure is
similar to those used in the experiments.

8.5.2 Maximum HRR
8.5.2.1 General
The maximum heat release rate is given by:
Q max = m
 max ∆H c,eff (30)
The maximum mass burning rate can either be as a result of the available flow of air (oxygen) into
an enclosure or, where an excess of oxygen is available, due to the maximum amount of fuel that can
burn at a given point in time.
8.5.2.2 Ventilation controlled

In a ventilation-controlled fire the heat release is limited by the oxygen that can reach the fuel to
sustain burning. Following the work of Kawagoe [26] the ventilation-controlled mass burning rate
can be found using:
m max = 0.09 Av H v1 2 (31)
which is valid for:
ρ0 g Av H
< 0.24 (32)
Afloor
The ventilation-controlled rate of heat release can be calculated using:
Q max = 1500 Av H v1/2 (33)
NOTE This formula makes a number of assumptions regarding the heat of combustion of the fuel, the location of
the neutral plane in a compartment fire, etc.
During the course of the fire there might be a change in ventilation. This could be due to windows
breaking, fire service intervention or the operation of the air handling or smoke extractor systems.
For design purposes, it might be necessary to estimate the time at which such changes can occur and
the influence they might have on the fire. One possible approach to this is to assume a characteristic
fire profile and then include events such as window breakage by calculating the effect of the change
in ventilation on the profile. Excess fuel volatiles that are unable to burn within the space can burn
when they encounter additional oxygen, one example of which is external flaming from a building.
8.5.2.3 Fuel controlled

In a fuel-controlled fire the maximum heat release rate is set by the mass of fuel that is able to burn at
a point in time. Often the mass burning rate is dictated by the exposed area of the fuel surfaces where:
m max = Amax ⋅ m '' (34)
The burning rate of fuel-controlled fires is difficult to predict. It is to a large extent dependent upon
the nature and geometric arrangement of the fuel. Based on work conducted with wood crib fires
[27], the mass burning rate over the area of the fire can be estimated using:
m max = 0.0012mtot mr / mtot (35)

8.5.3 Steady-burning phase

The steady-burning phase describes the period of time between the growth and decay phases, and
assumes a constant heat release rate corresponding with the maximum given in 8.6.2. The duration
of the steady-burning phase can be estimated, assuming the onset of decay once 80% of the fuel is
consumed, with:
 1 n +1 
0.8Qfd −  α ( t − ti ) 
tsteady =  n +1  (36)

Qmax
The correlation simply describes: (a) in the numerator – the energy consumed prior to the onset of
decay, less that consumed during growth, and (b) the denominator – the peak heat release rate during
the fire’s steady-burning phase.
Implicit within this is a conservative combustion efficiency of unity. Generally, per Law [28], the
steady-burning phase would not be expected to be less than 1 200 s for most cellulosic fuels.
8.5.4 Decay
The heat release rate as a function of time during the cooling phase can be estimated assuming a
linear decay after 80% of the available fuel (Qfd) has been consumed. The duration of the decay phase
(tdecay) can be estimated as:
0.4Q fd
t decay = (37)
Q max
8.5.5 Travelling fire frameworks

8.5.5.1 General
Real fire incidents such as those experienced in the WTC complex (2001) and large-scale experiments
have illustrated that in larger enclosures, fires do not burn relatively uniformly as in smaller
enclosures but tend to travel across the floor space. These fires are generally referred to as travelling
fires. Travelling fires can have a significant impact on the structural response of the building as
discussed in PD 7974-3. Travelling fires can be generally conceptualized as a localized fire that moves
[29]. Travelling fires are generally controlled by flame spread and burning time rather than specific
ventilation conditions, as fires in small compartments are.
To account for such fires, a few travelling fire (TF) methods have been put forward with a particular
bias to structural design applications [30], [1], [31]. There are three common components between
most of these methodologies:
a) that the heat and temperature field induced by the fire is not homogenous but split into the near
field (flames) and the far field (smoke). The near field represents the burning region of the fire
(with high temperatures of up to 1 200 °C and corresponding high heat fluxes) and the far field
represents the region remote from the burning area where the hot smoke is moving away from
the flames (lower temperatures and lower heat fluxes);
b) that the fire travels (moving both the far and the near field) at a given size and spread rate; and
c) that multiple fire sizes and fire spread rates are possible, but the occurrence of a specific size and
spread is near impossible to predict ahead of time and therefore a range of possible fires should
be considered together.

8.5.5.2 Relevant supporting correlations

The total fire heat release rate varies with time as a function of the area of burning and the heat
release rate density, as described in 8.1.3.
The area of burning evolves as a function of spread rate, local burning time and compartment
geometry. The local burning time, i.e. the time taken to consume a unit area of fuel is given by:
′′
Q fd
tb = (38)
Q ′′
This presupposes that the fire load energy density is constant within the compartment, and evenly
distributed along the fire path length (Lf). Figure 6 shows two indicative fire arrangements with fire
travel path lengths and path widths.
Figure 6 — Two indicative travelling fire arrangements with fire travel path lengths and path widths
a) Unobstructed enclosure b) Enclosure with a central obstruction, such as a core
The total burning duration of the fire is therefore:

t total = ( Lf / s ) + t b (39)
The maximum heat release rate would occur when the area of fire burning is the lesser of:
Lf .Wf or t b . s .Wf (40)
NOTE From a review of the available literature, Rackauskaite, et. al. [1], propose spread rates in the range of
0.1 mm∙s-1 to 19.3 mm∙s-1.

8.6 Post-flashover fires (inclusive of decay)

8.6.1 Maximum enclosure temperature
An upper bound maximum enclosure temperature post-flashover can be estimated based upon the
work of Thomas and Heselden [32], and Law [28], where:
Tg( max ) = 6000

(1 − e −0.1 Ω
) (41)
Ω
with:
At
Ω= (42)
Av H v
However, if the fire load is low, there might be insufficient energy to achieve Tg(max). Therefore, the
impact of fire load on the average temperature in the compartment can be evaluated using:
(
Tg = Tg( max ) 1 − e −0.05ψ ) (43)
with:
me
ψ= (44)
0.5
 Av At 
The correlations presented in this subclause are generally valid where: (a) the enclosure is of a size
where flashover can be expected, (b) the enclosure linings have a thermal inertia in the range 720 J/
(m2∙s0.5∙K) to 2 500 J/(m2∙s0.5∙K), and (c) Ω is in the range of 10 m-0.5 to 50 m-0.5.
8.6.2 Time–temperature relationship

The time–temperature relationship for smaller enclosures can be calculated via computational
means, e.g. using zone models such as CFAST, OZONE or B-RISK. In addition, approximations can
also be made via methods such as the Parametric Fire Model documented in BS EN 1991‑1‑2. These
models are not reproduced in this document.
Figure 7 provides indicative gas time–temperature according to Magnusson and Thelandersson
[33] for compartments afforded "normal linings" [i.e. 200 mm thick concrete, brick and lightweight
concrete – thermal inertia c. 1 100 J/(m2∙s0.5∙K)] as a function of fire load density and opening
factor. The models underpinning Figure 7 originate from calibrations against experiments that
predominantly used timber cribs as the fuel source.
Qt = 18.8me / At and O v = Av H v / At (45)

Figure 7 — Example gas time-temperature curves for post-flashover fires as a function of opening factor and fire load
density with normal enclosure linings
8.7 Nominal time–temperature curves

8.7.1 General
Nominal or standard fire curves are the simplest and most commonly adopted means of representing
a fire. They have been developed to allow classification and assessment of construction products
using commercial furnaces. Although they do not represent “real” fire scenarios they have been
developed from experience of real fires. A number of different curves exist. The choice of curve for a
particular situation will depend on the end use. Different curves are used for testing and assessment
depending on whether the structural element or product is to be used in the construction of a normal
building (office, dwelling etc.), the petrochemical or offshore industry, or for tunnels.
8.7.2 Standard fire curve

The most well-known and widely adopted nominal fire curve is the “standard” fire given in
BS EN 1991‑1‑2 and the ISO 834 series. The standard fire curve is based on a cellulosic (i.e. wood/
paper/fabric) fire within a compartment and is described by Formula (46):
θ g = 20 + 345 log10 ( 8tm + 1) (46)
8.7.3 External fire curve

An external fire curve (see BS EN 1991‑1‑2) is available for applications where the structural element
is subject to heating from flames emerging from openings. This is a less severe exposure condition
than for internal elements and takes the form:
θ g = 660(1 − 0.687e −0.32tm − 0.313e −3.8tm ) + 20 (47)

8.7.4 Hydrocarbon fire curve

In situations where the calorific value of the fire load is significantly higher than the standard
cellulosic curve, such as the petrochemical or offshore industries, then a hydrocarbon fire exposure
would be a more appropriate nominal fire curve to test and assess products. A number of such
curves exist. The most widely used is reproduced in the fire part of the Eurocode for Actions,
BS EN 1991‑1‑2, and takes the form:
θ g = 1080(1 − 0.325e −0.167 tm − 0.675e −2.5tm ) + 20 (48)
8.7.5 Slow heating curve

For reactive fire protection products it is possible that testing under standard fire conditions
overestimates performance. In such cases a slow heating curve is available of the form:
θ g = 154tm 0.25 + 20 (49)
for the first 21 minutes of the test followed by the standard curve for the remaining period. However,
this is rarely used in practice. See BS EN 1363‑2.
8.7.6 Nominal curves for tunnel fires

In recent years a number of high-profile tunnel fires have caused great damage and loss of life. In
such applications an even more severe exposure than the hydrocarbon curve may be appropriate
to simulate the effect of a fire involving large petrol tankers in a confined space. The most onerous
exposure has been developed in the Netherlands as the RWS curve which reaches temperatures of
1 350 °C. Other curves include the German RABT curve which achieves a maximum temperature
of 1 200 °C.
8.8 Production of species

8.8.1 Yields and production rates of smoke and combustion gases
The mass yields (Yi) of smoke particulates and combustion gases depend on the chemical
composition of the fuel and the varying combustion conditions during a fire. For any specific fuel, the
yields differ between non-flaming and flaming combustion conditions. For flaming combustion, yields
vary considerably between well-ventilated and under-ventilated combustion conditions as a function
of the equivalence ratio ( ϕ ). Products of inefficient combustion (CO, HCN, hydrocarbon and smoke
particulates) increase with increasing equivalence ratio while products of efficient combustion (CO2,
H2O, NOx, SO2) decrease with increasing equivalence ratio. The yields of halogen acid gases remain
approximately constant across the ϕ range. The relationship between equivalence ratio and yields
for burning fuels are sigmoid, showing major changes in the range between ϕ 1 to 1.5, but relatively
minor changes below ϕ 1 and above ϕ 1.5. Empirical relationships vary somewhat between
individual fuels (see Purser [34]) and some further reactions can occur between components in fuel
mixtures. Available data on interactions are currently limited, but are considered unlikely to be of
major significance, so that estimates for yields from fuel mixtures can be based on the relationships
for each fuel component.
For simplified design calculations it is therefore reasonable to use yield data for two basic flaming fire
states, well-ventilated combustion ( ϕ <1) and under-ventilated combustion ( ϕ >1). In general,
well-ventilated combustion occurs for open burning fires outside and during fires that are small in
relation to the enclosure volume, height and ventilation, so that the flames do not penetrate the upper
smoke later. This applies to the first few minutes of enclosure fires, and during fires in tall atrium

spaces. Flaming fires in single-storey enclosures (such as dwellings, offices and small retail units)
generally become under-ventilated within a few minutes as flames penetrate the upper layer and as
the equivalence ratio exceeds 1. Yields might be somewhat further increased in under-ventilated
post-flashover fires.
The mass production rates of smoke and combustion gases for any fuel then depend on the yields
under the prevailing combustion conditions (kg/kg) and the mass burning rate of the fuel (kg/s).
Data for smoke and combustion gas yields under well-ventilated and under-ventilated
flaming combustion conditions measured for 14 materials commonly used in buildings is
presented in Annex B.
Calculation expressions for yields and mass production rates for smoke and combustion gases are
presented in 8.8.2 and 8.8.3.
8.8.2 Smoke mass production, yields and concentrations

The mass rate of smoke production can be found using:
m part = ε smoke m f (50)
Table B.2 to Table B.5 give smoke particulate (soot) yield (also known as smoke mass conversion
factors) data. Data for a range of individual materials burned under well-ventilated and under-
ventilated flaming combustion conditions are presented in Table B.2 and Table B.5. Table B.4 shows
generic data for cellulosics, plastics and general building contents. Further data for cellulosics and
plastics under flaming and non-flaming conditions are given in Table B.3.
The findings from these data, obtained by different authors using different experimental scenarios
are described and discussed in Annex B. Since the mass of fuel carbon converted to smoke
particulates in fires is low, small variations in combustion efficiency arising from the local combustion
conditions in different fires can result in some variations between particulate yields, especially for
well-ventilated fires for which the yields are very low, especially for cellulosic materials.
As an alternative to expressing smoke yield in terms of soot particulate yield, it can be expressed in
optical terms as mass optical density and (Dm) or expressed to the base e as the Specific Extinction
Area ASEA (m2·kg-1) where ASEA = 2.3 × Dm.
Values for ASEA for a range of common materials for well-ventilated and under-ventilated flaming
combustion are given in Table B.2. Table B.4 gives data for ASEA and Dm for well- ventilated flaming
combustion for generic cellulosics, plastics and general building contents. Table B.5 gives further
data for ASEA and Dm for a range of common fuels under well-ventilated flaming conditions. These
optical measures yield depend primarily on the particulate mass yield, but also partly on the colour
and particle size distribution in the smoke. The measured value is also sensitive to the method of
measurement. Two relevant aspects are the use of polychromatic or monochromatic light and the
wavelength for monochromatic light. White light sources are subject to forward light scattering,
giving different results from monochromatic red light from a He-Ne laser (wavelength 0.649 µm)
which is now used for most test methods.
Both large- and bench-scale test procedures tend to monitor the optical/obscurational properties
of smoke. However, the mass concentration of smoke is useful (e.g. for input to field and zone
computational models). A relationship between optical properties and mass concentration has been
developed for post-flame generated smoke for a range of fuels under well-ventilated conditions [35].
Bouguer's law is the basis, relating the ratio of the transmitted and incident intensities to the mass

concentration, cs, of the smoke, the path length, L, through the smoke and the specific mass extinction
coefficient, Km, using Formula (51):
I / I o = exp ( − K m ⋅ cs ⋅ Ls ) (51)
where:
Km is the specific extinction coefficient (m2∙g-1)
cs is the smoke particulate mass concentration (g∙m-3)
Ls is the path length (m)
The estimated mean value for Km is 8.7 m2∙g−1 with an expanded uncertainty at the 95% confidence
interval of 1.1 m2∙g−1. Km therefore represents a conversion factor between smoke yield and specific
extinction area:
ASEA / ε smoke = 8.7 ×1000 (52)
or smoke yield and mass optical density:
Dm / ε smoke = ( 8.7 ×1000 ) / 2.3 (53)
The value of 8.7 m2∙g−1 becomes 10 m2∙g−1 when corrected from He-Ne laser light to visible light and it
depends on the smoke produced being primarily carbonaceous soot. The value is stated to be smaller
and more variable for smoke generated under smouldering or pyrolytic conditions as a result of the
low light absorption of this type of smoke and variability in smoke droplet size. Soot yields obtained
during under-ventilated burning of polymeric fuels in a small-scale apparatus have been shown to be
higher than those under well-ventilated conditions by a factor of approximately 2 ±0.5.

For the material data set in Table B.2, the average for ASEA / ε smoke = 4.8 (standard deviation 1.45)
for well-ventilated flaming and 7.1 (standard deviation 1.29) for under-ventilated flaming. These
ratios are somewhat lower than those obtained by Mulholland [35], and might be due to the use of a
white light emitter rather than a red laser. A human viewing incident or reflected light through smoke
might be subject to similar effects, adding to the uncertainty relating to human perception of smoke
obscuration.
8.8.3 Gas species mass production, yields and concentrations
8.8.3.1 Gas species mass production

An estimate of the mass rate of production of a gaseous product by a fire may be made using
Formula (54):
 i = Yi m
m f (54)
NOTE Limits. For most design purposes, the mass rate of smoke and carbon monoxide production are
proportional to the rate of heat release in a flaming fire and can be determined from Formulae (50) and (54)
respectively; however, this is not necessarily justified for a smouldering, under-ventilated or suppressed fire. In
these situations, the mass rate of carbon monoxide and smoke production can increase in relation to the rate of
heat release.
8.8.3.2 Gas species mass yields

Species mass yield data for carbon monoxide and other gas species under well-ventilated flaming
are listed in Table B.2. Data on Yco for well-ventilated and under-ventilated flaming of some generic
materials are given in Table B.4 and for some specific well-ventilated materials in Table B.5.

Based on the data in Table B.4 and Table B.5, in general terms, the CO yield (Yco) can be approximated
as 0.013 kg/kg for well ventilated flaming ( ϕ <1) and 0.2 kg/kg for under ventilated flaming ( ϕ >1).
8.9 Activation of heat detector devices and automatic fire suppression systems
The time to operation of a heat detector or heat sensing element of an automatic fire suppression
system (e.g. sprinkler head) can be estimated from the differential equation proposed in Heskestad
and Bill [36]:
d ( ∆Te ) u 1/2
= [ ∆Tg − (1 + C / u 1/2 )∆Te (55)
dt RTI
Tsui and Spearpoint [37] quote C factors in the range of 0.33 – 0.65 (m/s)1/2 depending upon the
response type. RTI values are given in the literature, e.g. [38]. The rated temperature, permitting
calculation of ΔTe, can be found in the relevant manufacturer’s specifications.
8.10 Effect of automatic fire suppression systems on fire conditions

Automatic fire suppression systems can control, and sometimes reduce, the growth and spread of
a fire. Accordingly, fires starting within enclosures containing such systems might be considered
controlled within an area of burning consistent with the spatial configuration of the suppression
system. Realistic and relevant assumptions should be made on the efficacy of sprinkler systems to
limiting potential fire growth and fire spread. For solid fuel sources, it might be suitable to assume
that the fire spread is limited to within the area of activated sprinkler heads.
Suppression systems that actively introduce cooling effects into the enclosure, e.g. water-based, can
reduce the severity of a fire in terms of enclosure temperatures. This effect is difficult to quantify,
although it is often assumed that the heat release rate of the fire remains fixed at the point at which
the system is first activated. Alternatively, Evans [39] proposes a means of quantifying the impact of
sprinkler suppression on a fire’s heat release via the following, which applies to unshielded fires:
( act ) 
 − t −t
Q ( t − t act ) = Q ( t act ) exp  (56)
  ′′ −1.85 
 ( )
3 w 
The presumption of sprinkler control or subsequently suppression in all applications is not
appropriate. The inclusion of the sprinkler interaction with fire development should be done in
cognizance of risk. Treatment in the probabilistic sense is discussed in PD 7974-7.

Annex A (informative)
Reference data
The following data in Table A.1 to Table A.6 is provided for informative purposes. It is incumbent on
the user, in cognizance of the recommendations set out in 4.2, to select data that is appropriate for
the given application.
Table A.1 — Convective fractions for different fuels [12]
Fuel Convective fraction (-)

Wood (Douglas fir) 0.62
PMMA 0.69
PE 0.57
PS 0.41
PU (rigid foam) 0.42
Propane 0.71
Methane 0.86
Table A.2 — Standardized fire growth rates [BS ISO/TR 13387‑2]
Growth rate α (kW/sn) n (-)

Slow 0.003
Medium 0.012 2
Fast 0.047
Ultra-fast 0.188
Table A.3 — Fire growth rates for some discrete fuel assemblies
Growth rate α (kW/sn) n (-) References

Cars – engine bay fire 0.01 to 0.06 2 [17]
Office reception workstation 0.003
Wood frame chairs 0.008 to 0.017
Stacked pallets 0.01
Double bed 0.08
Racked goods 0.0448 (per tier) 3 [40]
Upholstered furniture and stacked 0.188 2 BS ISO/TR 13387‑2
furniture near combustible linings
Office furniture — horizontally 0.012

distributed
Floor coverings 0.003
Cardboard or plastic boxes in 0.188

vertical storage arrangement
Bedding 0.047
Table A.4 gives Q ′′ for different occupancies. For most cases, Q ′′ corresponds with maximum value
estimated over the full duration of a fire. For hotels and industrial buildings, Q ′′ corresponds with the
mean value estimated over a defined period of burning.

Table A.4 — Heat release rates per unit area for different occupancies [41]
Occupancy Q ′′ (kW/m2) References
Ghosh [42], Hinkley [43] and

Shops 270–1 000 (maximum)
Law [44]
Offices 150–650 (maximum) Ghosh [42]
Hotel rooms 250 (average) Hansell and Morgan [45]
Residential 320–570 (maximum) Fang and Breese [46]
Industrial 90–620 (average) Theobald [47]
Alpert and Ward [48] and
Storage/stacked commodities 400–20 000 (maximum)
Delichatsios [49]
Table A.5 gives fire load densities for a range of occupancy types. Parameters describing the fire load
distributions are also given.
Table A.5 — Fire load density for different occupancies
Occupancy Distribution type ′′

Mean Q fd Coefficient of References
variation (-)
(MJ/m2)
Dwelling 780
Hospital 230
Hotel room Gumbel type I 310 0.30 [50]
Library 1 500
Office 420
School 285
Fast food outlet 526 0.61

Clothing store 393 0.42
Restaurant 298 0.64 [51]
Kitchen 314 0.51
Retail unit storage area Log-normal 1 196 1.01
Manufacturing and 1 180 0.73 [52]
storage of combustible
goods (<150 kg/m2)
Manufacturing and 9 920 0.86
storage of combustible
goods (>150 kg/m2)
Table A.6 shows the effective emission co-efficient for various materials.

Table A.6 — Effective emission co-efficient, K, for various materials
Material Effective emission coefficient, K
m-1
Wood cribs 0.51 [12] to 1.1 [53]
Assorted furniture 1.13 [12]
Diesel oil 0.43 [54]
Polypropylene 1.8 [55]
Polystyrene 5.3 [55]
PMMA 1.3 [55]
Kerosene 2.6 [54]
Petrol 2.0 [54]
Alcohol 0.37 [54]
Annex B (informative)
Reference data for smoke and toxic gas yields
B.1 Data for smoke and toxic gas yields for materials under well-ventilated
and under-ventilated flaming conditions
Data for smoke and combustion gas yields under well-ventilated and under-ventilated flaming
combustion conditions measured for 14 materials commonly used in buildings is presented in

Table B.1 and Table B.2 from Purser [34]. Table B.1 shows the net heat of chemical combustion,
stoichiometric oxygen demand and elemental composition of each fuel material.
Table B.1 — Composition of test materials
Material ΔHc,eff ΨO A)
Elemental composition (%)
kJ.g -1
g.g -1
C H O N Cl Br P S
Bouclé acrylic/wool/polyester 26.5 2.02 63.1 6.4 16.7 12.89 -<0.3 <0.5 – 0.94
38/38/24 mixed fibre fabric
Bouclé acrylic/wool/polyester 25.0 1.91 59.0 6.3 16.1 10.83 0.95 6.09 – 0.76
38/38/24, FR back-coated
CMHRA) polyurethane foam- FR 24.5 1.87 56.45 7.67 24.1 8.22 2.53 – – –
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) 44.8 3.42 85.5 14.51 – – – – – –
Medium density fibreboard (MDF) 16.9 1.35 47.90 6.13 41.66 3.69 0.62 <0.5 <0.01 -
Polyacrylonitrile (>85%) fabric 30.5 2.33 65.62 5.71 – 23.24 – – – –
Polyamide 6 30.5 2.33 63.68 9.79 14.14 12.4 – – – –
Polyisocyanurate PIR rigid foam 24.5 1.87 63.5 4.98 21.8 6.15 3.56 – – –
Polymethylmethacrylate PMMA 25.2 1.92 60.33 8.14 31.53 – – – – –
Polystyrene 40.2 3.07 92.26 7.38 – – – – – –
Polyvinylchloride PVC 16.8 1.28 38.44 4.84 – – 56.73 – – –
Plywood 17.8 1.36 46.32 5.80 47.56 0.32 - – – –
Acrylic/cotton/polyester 26.2 2.00 64.4 6.39 18.45 11.55 <0.3 <0.5 – –
52/31/17 velour mixed fibre fabric

Wood Pinus sylvestris 18.1 1.38 49.2 6.44 44.22 0.14 – – – –

Table B.1 (continued)
Material ΔHc,eff ΨO A)
Elemental composition (%)
kJ.g -1
g.g -1
C H O N Cl Br P S
A)
CMHR = combustion modified high resilience polyurethane foam FR (flame retarded)
Table B.2 shows the yields of smoke and combustion gases measured from each material under
well-ventilated flaming combustion conditions ( ϕ ~ 0.5) and under-ventilated combustion
conditions ( ϕ 1.5 to 2.0). Smoke yields are expressed in mass terms (mg smoke particulates/g fuel
mass burned) and in terms of visibility as smoke extinction area (ASEA) (= 2.3 × Dm) (m2∙kg). The
average ratio between ASEA and particulate yield was 4.8 for well-ventilated fires and 7.1 for under-
ventilated fires.
Table B.2 — Toxic gas yields, effective heats of combustion and oxygen consumption under well-ventilated and
under-ventilated combustion conditions for a range of common polymeric materials from the PD ISO/TS 19700 tube
furnace [34]
Well ventilated flaming: ϕ 0.4–0.8

Polymer ϕ Eff Ht CO2 CO HC O2 A) ԑsmoke ASEA HCN NO NO2 HCl HBr SO2
kJ/g mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g kg/kg m /kg mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g
2
LDPE B)
0.49 41.5 2836 15 85 3166 0.045 268 – – – – – –
Polystyrene 0.49 31.6 2644 61 82 2416 0.110 621 – – – – – –
Wood 0.51 16.9 1696 6 13 1293 0.005 12 – – – – – –
Plywood 0.52 17.3 1774 6 11 1324 0.003 1 0 2 1 – – –
MDFC) 0.49 16.8 1680 7 24 1283 0.003 7 0 3 1 – – –
PAND) 0.88 30.4 2339 39 54 2320 0.025 104 8 2 1 – – –

Polyamide 6 0.51 28.4 2216 3 34 2166 0.019 147 0 11 1 – – –
PIR E)
0.52 24.6 2340 48 13 1874 0.033 75 3 2 1 69 – –
PMMA 0.52 24.7 2192 5 13 1881 0.023 148 0 – – – – –
CMHR PUF) 0.59 25.3 2156 41 48 1928 0.028 154 4 3 1 9 – –
Bouclé non-FRG) 0.50 24.4 2128 60 19 1861 0.026 103 1 7 1 – – 12
Acrylic, wool, PE
34/38/24
Bouclé FRG) 0.44 19.3 1486 130 81 1474 0.090 456 19 8 0 10 30 11
VelourH) 0.52 26.3 2240 41 51 2005 0.019 84 2 4 0 – – –
Acrylic, cotton,PE
52/31/17
PVCI) 0.40 10.7 667 177 70 815 0.032 163 – – – 447 – –
Fuel rich (under-ventilated) flaming ϕ 1.5–2.0
LDPE 1.71 29.4 1696 196 334 2242 0.085 668 – – – – – –
Polystyrene 1.99 21.8 1662 86 299 1664 0.179 820 – – – – – –
Wood 1.71 9.8 967 134 80 752 0.019 155 – – – – – –
Plywood 1.54 9.4 986 96 55 714 0.014 120 0 1 0 – – –
MDF 1.66 8.9 870 113 62 681 0.019 150 3 1 1 – – –
PAN 1.69 19.1 1271 130 235 1460 0.060 489 72 2 3 – – –
Polyamide 6 2.03 16.3 1135 130 248 1246 0.051 413 41 3 3 – – –
PIR 2.08 14.0 937 333 136 1068 0.072 495 20 1 2 57 – –
PMMA 2.06 14.0 1108 239 260 1067 0.021 173 0 – – – – –

Table B.2 (continued)
Well ventilated flaming: ϕ 0.4–0.8

Polymer ϕ Eff Ht CO2 CO HC O2 A) ԑsmoke ASEA HCN NO NO2 HCl HBr SO2
kJ/g mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g kg/kg m /kg mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g mg/g
2
CMHR PU 2.07 14.9 1041 246 197 1134 0.059 403 14 1 2 5 – –

Bouclé non-FR 2.12 14.2 1138 119 228 1080 0.104 594 35 1 2 4
Bouclé FR 2.03 13.3 920 146 184 1016 0.100 611 25 2 1 3 28 8
Velour 2.06 14.0 1211 126 239 1071 0.084 526 34 2 1 – – –
PVC 1.82 7.5 389 137 98 573 0.070 473 – – – 585 – –
A)
Oxygen consumed (mg/g)
B)
LDPE low density polyethylene
C)
MDF medium density fibreboard
D)
PAN polyacrylonitrile
E)
PIR polyisocyanurate foam
F)
CMHR = combustion modified high resilience polyurethane foam FR (flame retarded)
G)
Bouclé looped yarn mixed fabric (see Table B.1)
H)
Velour mixed fabric (see Table B.1)
I)
PVC polyvinylchloride (rigid 100% PVC)
B.2 Smoke particulate yields (smoke mass conversion factors)

Particulate smoke (soot) yields (also known as mass conversion factors) for a range of materials
under well-ventilated and under-ventilated flaming combustion conditions are presented in Table B.2
from Purser [34]. Further generic data for cellulosics and “plastics” under flaming and non-flaming
conditions are given in Table B.3 [56].
Table B.3 — Smoke mass conversion factor [56]
Material Smoke particulate yield, Ɛsmoke
kg/kg
Flaming Non-flaming
Cellulosics <0.01 to 0.025 0.01 to 0.17
Plastics <0.01 to 0.17 <0.01 to 0.19
NOTE Limits. The requirement of a well-ventilated fire is emphasized. Below concentration of 12% to 15% O2,
smoke yield can increase. Even in the well-ventilated region, smoke yield is dependent on the scenario and the
equivalence-ratio.
Those for flaming (0.01 kg/kg to 0.025 kg/kg) in Table B.3 compare with an average of 0.034 and
a range of 0.003 kg/kg to 0.11 kg/kg from Table B.2. For under-ventilated flaming the yields in
Table B.2 are approximately double those from well-ventilated flaming (average 0.07 kg/kg, range
0.14 to 0.18).
For optical smoke measurements, values of ASEA for a range of common materials are also given
in Table B.2. Table B.4 compares ranges of data for CO, particulate smoke and optically measured
smoke yields for generic products compiled from Table B.2 with data for CO and particulate yields
from Tewarson [57] and for smoke particulate yields, smoke extinction area (ASEA) and mass
optical density (Dm) from Mulholland [35]. Table B.5 shows further CO and smoke data for well-

ventilated combustion for individual materials. Data for ASEA and Dm are shown as calculated from
Tewarson’s particulate data according to Formulae (51) and (52) and as measured by Mulholland for
similar materials.
The data in Table B.2 to Table B.5 show good agreement between the CO and particulate yields for
individual materials and generic material classes for the results from all three authors, (Purser,
Mulholland and Tewarson), but some variation between optically based measurements and
calculation of smoke yields (expressed as ASEA or Dm m2∙kg). Since the optical measurement of Purser
[34] used a white light source rather than a red He-Neon laser, the more conservative (higher) optical
density measurement data from Mulholland [35] may be considered more applicable. The results
show that well-ventilated yields of CO and smoke vary considerably between different materials,
tending to be higher for “plastics” than for cellulosic materials. The results from Table B.2 and
Table B.4 also show that yields of both CO and smoke increase considerably as combustion conditions
become under-ventilated.
For under-ventilated flaming conditions the CO yields are sensitive to upper layer temperature,
equivalence ratio and flame region oxygen concentration, so can be closer to 0.2 kg/kg in some
compartment fires, especially post-flashover.
Table B.4 — Ranges of carbon monoxide yields, smoke particulate yields, smoke specific extinction areas and mass
optical densities for cellulosics and plastics under well-ventilated and under-ventilated flaming combustion
Fuel type and author YCO Ɛsmoke ASEA Dm

kg/kg kg/kg m2/kg m2/kg
Purser [34]
Cellulosics Well-ventilated 0.005 to 0.007 0.003 to 0.005 7 to 15.2 3 to 7
Under-ventilated 0.055 to 0.080 0.014 to 0.019 120 to 155 52 to 67

Plastics Well-ventilated 0.003 to 0.177 0.019 to 0.110 75 to 621 33 to 270
Under-ventilated 0.086 to 0.333 0.059 to 0.179 403 to 820 175 to 356

Mulholland [35] (smoke optical) and Tewarson (CO) and smoke particulates [57]
Cellulosics Well-ventilated 0.004 <0.01 to 0.025 920 400
Plastics Well-ventilated 0.024 to 0.063 <0.01 to 0.17 552 to 2300 240 to 1000
General Well-ventilated 0.013 690 300
building
contents
NOTE Limits [35]. Investigations have shown that the correlation between small-scale and large-scale tests
breaks down as the fire becomes more complex. In large-scale tests, heat flux and ventilation conditions can have a
major impact on smoke production. In a design procedure, a sensitivity analysis is necessary.

Table B.5 — Carbon monoxide yields, smoke particulate yields, smoke specific extinction areas and mass optical
densities for well-ventilated combustion from Tewarson [57] and Mulholland [35]
Material YCO Ɛsmoke ASEA ASEA Dm Dm

kg/kg kg/kg m /kg
2
m /kg
2
m /kg
2
m2/kg
Calculated Measured Calculated Measured

Plywood – – – 668 – 290
PMMA 0.010 0.022 191 345 83 150
PVC (with plasticizer) 0.063 0.172 1496 1474 650 640
Douglas fir 0.004 0.015 131 645 57 280
Polystyrene 0.060 0.164 1427 1819 to 3224 620 790 to 1400
Polyurethane (rigid) 0.024 0.113 983 597 to 760 427 220 to 330
Ethanol 0.001 0.008 70 – – –
Kerosene 0.012 0.042 365 – – –
Benzene 0.067 0.181 1575 – – –
Octane 0.011 0.038 331 – – –
Silicone 0.006 – – – – –

Annex C (informative)
Example configuration factors
Geometry Configuration factor Fe-R
A B FABCD-R = Fe1-R + Fe2-R + Fe3-R + Fe4-R
e1 e2
e3 e4
D C
R
A B C Fe-R = FACDF-R − FABEF-R

e
R E
F D
R  X  Y  Y  X  
1 
c Fe-R =  tan −1  + tan −1  
2π  1 + X    
 1+ X 1+Y  1+Y
2 2 2 2
where  
e
b a
X=
c
b
Y=
a c
1  −1  1  −1 
Fe-R = tan   − AY tan A
2π  Y  
where
e
b c R a
X=
b
c
a Y=
b
1
A=
X 2 +Y 2

Bibliography
Standards publications
For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
BS 476‑20, Fire tests on building materials and structures — Part 20: Method for determination of the
fire resistance of elements of construction (general principles)
BS 7974, Application of fire safety engineering principles to the design of buildings — Code of practice
BS EN 1991‑1‑2, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures — Part 1-2: General actions — Actions on structures
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PD

BSI Standards Publication

Application of fire safety engineering

Part 1: Initiation and development of fire within the enclosure

Publishing and copyright information

© The British Standards Institution 2019

Published by BSI Standards Limited 2019

ISBN 978 0 580 97726 8

ICS 13.220.20; 91.040.01

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Date Text affected

© THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Figure 3 — Conceptual illustration of continuous fire growth 10

© THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED i

Table A.1 — Convective fractions for different fuels [12] 30

ii © THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Relationship with other publications

Part 7: Probabilistic risk assessment

Information about this document

Use of this document

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This publication is not to be regarded as a British Standard.

Contractual and legal considerations

iv © THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

• allows the safety levels for alternative designs to be compared;

© THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 1

3 Terms, definitions and symbols

3.1 Terms and definitions

3.1.2 axisymmetric plume

3.1.3 ceiling jet

3.1.5 design fire

3.1.7 equivalence ratio

3.1.8 fire load energy

3.1.9 fire load energy density

3.1.10 fire safety engineering

3.1.11 heat of combustion

3.1.12 heat release rate

3.1.13 heat release rate density

2 © THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

3.1.14 sensitivity analysis

3.1.15 stoichiometric oxygen demand

3.1.16 total fire load

3.1.17 virtual origin

3.1.18 zone model

Symbol Unit Description

δs m Thickness of the enclosure boundaries

εf – Emissivity of the flame

ε smoke – Proportion of smoke particulate mass yield to fuel mass loss

FTP – Flux-time product

© THE BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION 2019 – ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 3

Symbol Unit Description

λf m Thickness of the flame

mr kg Mass remaining at time t in burnt area

n – Growth power of fire

q e′′ W∙m-2 Exposed heat flux

q R′′ kW∙m-2 Radiative heat flux

Q kW Total heat release rate

Q ′′ kW∙m-2 Total heat release rate per unit area