ELEC 2147

Electrical Energy Technology

AC Circuit II
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1
 Transfer Function
• When a signal X() (phasor with frequency ) is input to a system, it
produces an output phasor Y(). The transfer function is defined as

Y( )
H ( ) 
X( )

• Frequency response of a circuit is the plot of the circuit’s transfer function

H() versus , with  varying from =0 to =
• The input X() and output Y() can be either voltage or current at any
place in the circuit
• Four possible transfer functions:
V ( ) V ( )
Voltage gain: H ( )  o Transfer Impedance: H ( )  o
Vi ( ) Ii ( )
I ( ) I ( )
Current gain: H ( )  o Transfer Admittance: H ( )  o
Ii ( ) Vi ( )
2
• Transfer functions are in general complex quantities, i.e.,
H()=|H()|exp[j()]
• We can apply the AC steady-state analysis techniques to find out H()
• If there is any common factors in the numerator and denominator in the
transfer function, they can be cancelled out, giving
N( )
H ( ) 
D( )
– Roots of numerator polynomial N() are called zeros
– Roots of denominator polynomial D() are called poles
• Example: Find the transfer function Vo () /Vs () in the figure a).
– First, the frequency domain equivalent circuit is shown in b)
– By voltage division,
Vo ( ) 1/ jC 1
H ( )   
Vs ( ) R  1/ jC 1  j RC
– The magnitude and phase are
1 1
| H ( ) | 
|1  j RC | 1  ( RC ) 2
3
 – At =0 => |H| = 1,  = 0
– At = => |H| = 0,  = -90
– At =1/RC => |H| = 1/ 2 ,  = -45
– The magnitude and phase responses are plotted

• The above circuit is called Lowpass Filter as only the low frequencies can
pass through
• The half-power frequency (or cutoff frequency) c is defined as the
frequency at which the magnitude of H() equals 1/ 2 from the maximum
(this is equivalent to power drop at 1/2):
1 1 1
| H (c ) |   c 
1  c2 R 2C 2 2 RC

• A lowpass filter can also be formed when the output of an RL circuit is

taken off the resistor V ( ) R 1
H ( )  o  
Vs ( ) R  j L 1  j L  R 4
• For the above circuit, if the output is taken off the
resistor, the effect is reverse
• The transfer function is
V ( ) R j RC
H ( )  o  
Vs ( ) R  1/ jC 1  j RC
• It is obvious that |H(0)|=0 and |H()|=1 => it only pass
the high frequencies
• The cutoff frequency can also be shown to be c =1/RC
c RC 1 1
| H (c ) |   c 
1  c2 R 2C 2 2 RC

• A highpass filter can also be formed when the output of

an RL circuit is taken off the inductor

H ( ) 
Vo ( )

j L

j L
R  
Vs ( ) R  j L 1  j L
R  
5
I o ( ) 4  j 2 j 0.5 (4  j 2 )
 
Ii ( ) 4  j 2  1/ j 0.5 1  j 2  ( j ) 2

6
 The Decibel Scale
P
• Historically, the ratio of two power levels are expressed in GdB  10 log10 2
P1
• When P1=P2, the gain is GdB=0dB
• If P2=2P1, then GdB=10log102  3dB. On the other hand, if P2=0.5P1,
GdB=10log100.5  -3dB
• Let P1=V12/R1, and P2=V22/R2, then
V22 / R2 V R
GdB  10 log10  20 log10 2  10 log10 1
V12 / R1 V1 R2
V
• Further assume that R1=R2, we have GdB  20 log10 2
V1
I2
G  20 log
• Similarly, if we let P1=I12R1, P2=I22R2, and R1=R2, we have dB 10
I1
• Note 1: 10log10 is used for power, 20log10 is used for voltage and current
• Note 2: Decibel can only be applied to ratio of one variable to another of the
same type => transfer impedance and transfer admittance cannot be used
• Note 3: Only magnitude of voltage and current go into the equations
7
 Bandpass Filter
• Consider the RLC series circuit when the output is taken off the resistor
• The transfer function is
Vo ( ) R
H ( )  
Vs ( ) R  j ( L  1/ C )
• Note that |H(0)|=0 and |H()|=0
• Only the frequencies in the middle get passed to
the output
• This is called bandpass filter
• The center frequency occurs when voltage across R is maximum
• Or equivalently when impedances of C and L cancel each other:
1
 L  1/ C  o  rad/s
LC
• This state is called resonance in the RLC circuit
• o is also called the resonance frequency
8
• The average power dissipated at the resistor is P()=1/2  |I()|2R
since Vm
| I ( ) |
R 2  ( L  1/ C )2
Vm2 R 1
P( ) 
2 R 2  ( L  1/ C ) 2
1 Vm2
• At the center frequency o, P(o ) 
2 R
P (o ) Vm2 “half-power
• The cutoff frequencies occur at P (1 )  P(2 )   frequencies”
2 4R

• Or

• This is equivalent to R  ( L  1/ C )  2 R
2 2

9
• This is equivalent to R 2  ( L  1/ C )2  2 R
• Solving the above equation gives
2 2
R  R  1 R  R  1 1
1       , 2      o  rad/s
2L  2 L  LC 2L  2L  LC LC
• It can be shown that , resonant frequency is the geometric mean
of the half-power frequencies
• Bandwidth B = 2-1 = R/L
• In general, 1 and 2 are not symmetrical around o
 𝜔𝐿 − = 𝑅2
𝜔𝐶
2
1 2
2
±
1 𝜔𝐿 − = 𝑅
1 𝑅22 + 𝜔𝐿 − = 2𝑅𝜔𝐶
2
2 𝜔𝐶
𝑅 + 𝜔𝐿 − = 2𝑅
𝜔𝐶 2
1
2 1 𝜔𝐿 − = ±𝑅
1 𝜔𝐿 − =𝑅 2 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐿 − = 𝑅2 𝜔𝐶
𝜔𝐶 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 ± 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = 0
1 2 2
1 ± 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔= 𝐿𝐶
𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = 0
± 𝜔𝐿 − = 𝑅2 𝜔𝐶 2
𝜔𝐶 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = 0
1
1 𝜔𝐿 − = ±𝑅 −𝑅𝐶 ± 𝑅2 𝐶 2 + 4𝐿𝐶
𝜔𝐿 − = ±𝑅 𝜔𝐶 𝜔=
𝜔𝐶 2 2𝐿𝐶
𝜔 𝐿𝐶 ± 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = 0
𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 ± 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = 0 2
𝜔 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = −𝑅0 𝑅2 1
𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = 0 2 𝜔= ± +
2
𝜔 𝐿𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 =2𝐿0 4𝐿2 𝐿𝐶
𝜔 𝐿𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶𝜔 − 1 = 0
−𝑅𝐶 ± 𝑅 2 𝐶 2 + 4𝐿𝐶
−𝑅𝐶 ± 𝑅2 𝐶 2 + 4𝐿𝐶
𝜔= 𝑅𝐶 ± 𝑅2 𝐶 2 + 4𝐿𝐶
𝜔= 2𝐿𝐶
𝜔=
2𝐿𝐶 2𝐿𝐶
−𝑅 𝑅2 1
−𝑅 𝑅2
1 𝜔= ± 2
+𝑅 𝑅2 1
𝜔= ± + 2𝐿 4𝐿
𝜔 = 𝐿𝐶 ± +
2𝐿 4𝐿2 𝐿𝐶 2𝐿 4𝐿2 𝐿𝐶
𝑅𝐶 ± 𝑅2 𝐶 2 + 4𝐿𝐶
𝑅𝐶 ± 𝑅2 𝐶 2 + 4𝐿𝐶
𝜔=
𝜔= 2𝐿𝐶
2𝐿𝐶
11
𝑅 𝑅2 1
𝑅 𝑅2 1 𝜔= ± +
• Example: For the circuit on the right, let R=2, L=1mH, and C=0.4F. a)
Find o, 1 and 2; b) find the bandwidth; c) determine the amplitude of
current at o, 1 and 2
– a)
1 1
o  =  50 krad/s
-3 6
LC 10  0.4 10
2
R  R  1 2
1          (103 2
)  (50  103 2
)  49 krad/s
2L  2L  LC 2 10 -3

2  51 krad/s

– b) B = 2 krad/s
– c) At  =o, I = Vm/R = 20/2 = 10A

At  =1 or 2, I  Vm  20  7.071A

2R 2 2

12
• The parallel RLC circuit can also produce a bandpass filter
• The transfer function V/I is
1
V 1 1 
   jC  
Im(Y)=0 I R j L 

• Resonance occurs when all the current passes through R or equivalently

C=1/L => o  1/ LC rad/s; the resonance frequency is the same as
series RLC circuit
• By a similar logic as the series RLC circuit, the cutoff frequencies can be
shown to be 2 2
1  1  1 1  1  1
1       , 2      o  1/ LC
2 RC  2 RC  LC 2 RC  2 RC  LC
B = 2-1 = 1/RC
• Example: Find the resonant frequency of the circuit at the right.
– The input admittance is
1 1 2  j 2
Y  j (0.1)    0.1  j (0.1) 
10 2  j 2 4  4 2
– At resonance, Im(Y)=0 =>
2o
o (0.1)  0  o =0.2 rad/s
4  4o2 13
• In the series RLC circuit, if we take the output across the C and L instead
of R, we will get a frequency response the opposite to that of bandpass
filter

• This is due to the fact that the total voltage drop across all elements is a
constant
• This filter is called bandstop filter

14
• Example: Determine what type of filter is shown in the figure. Calculate
the cutoff frequency. Take R=2k, L=2H, and C=2F.
– The transfer function is
Vo R || (1/ jC ) R
H ( )   
Vi j L  R || (1/ jC )  2 RLC  j L  R

– Since |H(0)|=1 and |H()|=0, this filter is a lowpass filter

– The magnitude of the transfer function is
R
| H ( ) |
( R   2 RLC )2   2 L2
– The cutoff frequency occurs when |H|2 reduces by 1/2 from DC value (which is
|H(0)|=1 )
2
1 R2 2  c L 
  2  (1  c LC )  
2

2 ( R  c RLC )  c L
2 2 2 2  R 
– Substituting the values of R, L and C into the above equation, and solving for
the quadratic equation gives
c  742 rad/s
– Notice that the other solution is a negative number, so it is neglected
15
 Resonance

3 possible definitions:
The center frequency occurs when voltage -Frequency at which L=1/ C
across R is maximum or equivalently when -Frequency at which parallel admittance is
impedances of C and L cancel each other: a maximum
Minimum impedence and zero phase -Frequency at which current is in phase
with voltage
1
 L  1/ C  o  rad/s
LC

16
 Op amp ac circuits
• The three steps stated at the beginning of this chapter also apply to
op amp circuits
• We will assume ideal op amps as usual
• Example: Determine vo(t) for the op amp circuit shown in Fig a), if
vs=3cos1000tV
– We first transform the circuit to the phasor domain
as shown in Fig b) below with Vs = 30o,
=1000rad/s
– Applying KCL at node 1, we obtain
30o  V1 V1 V1  0 V1  V0
  
10  j5 10 20
 6  (5  j 4)V1  V0
– At node 2, KCL gives
V1  0 0  V0
  V1   jV0
10  j10

17
 – With the above two equations, we obtain Vo=1.02959.04o
– Hence, vo(t) = 1.029cos(1000t+59.04o) V

• Example: Compute the closed-loop gain and phase shift for the circuit
in the figure below. Assume that R1=R2=10k, C1=2F, C2=1F and
=200rad/s
– The feedback and input impedances are calculated as
1 R2
Z f  R2 || 
jC2 1  j R2C2
1 1  j R1C1
Zi  R1  
jC1 jC1
– Since the circuit shown in the figure is an
inverting amplifier, the closed-loop gain is given by
Zf  jC1R2
G 
Zi (1  j R1C1 )(1  j R2C2 )
– Substituting the given values of R1, R2, C1, C2 and , we obtain
 j4
G  0.434130.6o
(1  j 4)(1  j 2)
– Thus, the closed-loop gain is 0.434 and the phase shift is 130.6o
18
 Active Filters
• All we have seen in this chapter so far is called passive filters (i.e., no
active elements)
• Limitations of passive filters:
– Cannot generate gain greater than 1 (since energy only dissipates in passive
circuit)
– It requires inductors, which are bulky and expensive
• Active filters consist of combinations of resistors, capacitors, and op amp
• Example: In the filter shown in the figure, the transfer function is Zf
V Zf R f || (1/ jC f )
H ( )  o    Zi
Vi Zi Ri
– Since R f / jC f Rf
R f || (1/ jC f )  
R f  1/ jC f 1  jC f R f
– Therefore
Rf 1
H ( )  
Ri 1  jC f R f
19
 – This is in the form of lowpass filter (compare with p.3), except that there is a
low frequency (DC) gain of –Rf / Ri
– The cutoff frequency is c = 1/RfCf , which does not depend on Ri

– This implies several inputs with different Ri could be summed, and the cutoff
frequency would be the same for each input

• Example: This example studies an active highpass filter

– The transfer function is
Rf jCi R f
H ( )   
Ri  1/ jCi 1  jCi Ri
– This is a highpass filter (compare p.5), except that when , the gain is
–Rf/Ri
– The cutoff frequency is c = 1/RiCi

20
• Example: The lowpass and highpass filters can be cascaded

– One can control the 1, 2, and K independently in this case
– This is not true for cascading passive filters, as one circuit loads the other and
alters the desired transfer function
– The transfer function of this bandpass filter is simply
 1  jC2 R   R f 
H ( )        
 1  j C1 
R 1  j C2   Ri 
R

– With 1= 1/RC2 and 2= 1/RC1, the transfer function is equivalent to
Rf j / 1
H ( )  
Ri (1  j / 1 )(1  j / 2 )
– Recall that o  12 , the magnitude of the transfer function at center
frequency can be shown to be R f 2
| H (o ) |
Ri 1  2
21
 Passive and Active bandpass comparison

V ( ) R  1  jC2 R   R f 
H ( )  o  H ( )        
Vs ( ) R  j ( L  1/ C )  1  j C1 
R 1  j C2   Ri 
R
1
o  rad/s o  12
LC
2 2
R  R  1 R  R  1
1  
2L
  
 2L 

LC
, 2 
2L
  
 2L 

LC
1= 1/RC2 and 2= 1/RC1

Rf 2
| H (o ) | 1 | H (o ) |
Ri 1  2

22
• Example: A bandstop filter may also be constructed using the basic active
lowpass and highpass filters

Rf  1 jC2 R 
• The transfer function is H( )      
Ri  1  jC1R 1  jC2 R 
• The cutoff frequencies are determined by the lowpass and highpass filters
respectively
• The gain at passband is |H(0)| = Rf/Ri
• The magnitude of H() at o  12 :
R f 1  j 2o / 2  o2 / 12 R f 21
| H (o ) | 
Ri (1  jo / 2 )(1  jo / 1 ) Ri 1  2

23
Passive and Active bandstop comparison

1   2 LC Rf  1 jC2 R 
H ( )  H ( )     
j RC  1   2 LC Ri  1  jC1R 1  jC2 R 

|H(0)| = 1 |H(0)| = Rf/Ri

Rf 21
| H (o ) |
| H (o ) | 0 Ri 1  2

24
25