One-Pagers

Trying to deliberately increase the chances of learning

Created by
A.Whitworth
"Memory is the glue that binds our mental lives together, giving us continuity and coherence from one day to the
next, from one year to the next, and from one decade to the next.” Daniel L. Schacter

Deep Meaningful Rich

Trying to make education

research more digestible

Trying to deliberately increase the chances of learning – A.Whitworth

 One-Pagers
Trying to deliberately increase the chances of learning

Created by
A.Whitworth

Contents

Part 1 Part 2

Retrieval Practice – A summary Rethinking the model of memory – A summary

Events of Instruction: "Instructional Design: Principles and The Seven Sins of Memory - "The Seven Sins of Memory: How
Applications" (1965) – Robert Gagne the Mind Forgets and Remembers“ (2001) – Daniel L Schacter

Generative Learning: Learning as a Generative Activity (2015) – Successive relearning - “Lifespan maintenance of intelligence: On
Mayer and Fiorella the possible role of retrieval processes" (1984) – Harry P. Bahrick

Successive Relearning: Inspired by The Power of Successive Cognitive Load During - Problem-Solving: Effects on Learning
Relearning: Improving Performance on Course Exams and Long- (1988) – John Sweller
Term Retention - Katherine A. Rawson & John Dunlosky &
Sharon M. Sciartelli Cognitive Neuroscience – The Basics -Further Reading:
NEUROCOGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN MEMORY- Ken A.
Novice Learners – A summary Paller

Desirable Difficulties - Memory and Metamemory Improving Students’ Learning with Effective Learning
Considerations in the Training of Human Beings" (Bjork and Bjork, Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational
1994). Psychology – Dunlosky et al.

Trying to deliberately increase the chances of learning – A.Whitworth

 Retrieval Practice

Trying to deliberately increase the chances of learning

“The deeper, more difficult and more complex retrieval is, the more
powerful that retrieval will be in facilitating successful retrievals in
Created by the future.” - (Whitten and Bjork 1977) Some Key Terms
A.Whitworth
Storage Strength: Storage strength refers to the strength of the
memory trace that is formed in the brain during the learning process.
Seven Key Features Retrieval Strength: Retrieval strength refers to the ease and accuracy
with which a person can recall previously learned information.

Activation Feedback Spacing Cues Meaningful Scope Metacognition

The most crucial Appropriate The retrieval For retrieval to be We want to ensure There is much Effective retrieval
factor in acquiring feedback is essential schedule needs to effective, we aim for that learning is knowledge to be will help build
new knowledge is in the retrieval be carefully it to be successful meaningful. covered in each metacognition by
what the students process. It helps not considered. If the and low stakes. Therefore the unique subject strengthening
already know. It is only correct memory memory strength is While we hope ambition with retrieval domain. If retrieval is connections in the
essential to activate issues but also low, then immediate students build must reflect this aim. successful, then brain, promoting
the appropriate prior maintains correct retrieval could be strong internal cues, We must increase the knowledge should deeper
knowledge so responses. more appropriate. they might need complexity of the become more understanding,
students can link new Corrective feedback This will increase the some help. We, retrieval. We need to automated. With and allowing for
learning to existing and elaborative chances of success therefore, need to ensure we build more greater automation, self-reflection on
knowledge more feedback are both and the students’ consider which cues profound the teacher can the learning
easily. Interleaving valuable. However, self-efficacy. As that to use and when it understanding and increase the scope of process. We must
can help students elaborative feedback strength increases, is appropriate to meaning levels. retrieval (the amount allow learners the
create links between can help ensure that the spacing of start reducing Knowledge should be you can cover in the opportunity to
topics and create knowledge is more retrieval events will these. There will be encountered in same timeframe). monitor their
greater levels of easily transferred in increase. Effective a careful balancing various contexts with Expanding the scope understanding and
understanding. the future. spacing is complex act between cued as many learning can also help build ability to use
and needs to be recall and free connections made as links and meaning. knowledge
responsive. recall. possible. meaningfully.

Trying to deliberately increase the chances of learning – A.Whitworth

 Events of Instruction – Robert Gagne
Deliberately increasing the chances of learning
Created by
A.Whitworth

Events of Gaining State the Activate Prior Presenting

Instruction Attention Objective Learning the Stimulus

“The events of instruction The second step is to state The third step is activating The fourth step is to provide
The first step in effective
must be selected and the learning objectives the learner's prior the information or skills to be
instruction is to capture the
organised so as to take clearly. This helps the knowledge relevant to the learned. This can be done
learner's attention. This can
into account the be done through a hook, such learner understand what they current learning. This helps through various methods,
characteristics of the as a question, a problem, or an are expected to learn and the learner connect new such as demonstrations,
learners and the nature of interesting opening. The goal the end goal. information to what they readings or interactive
the material to be is to engage the learner and already know, aiding in activities.
learned". – Robert Gagne make them interested in the understanding and
learning that is about to take retention.
place.

Enhancing
Retention & Assessing Providing Eliciting Learning
Transfer Performance Feedback Performance Guidance

The eighth step is to The seventh step is to give The sixth step is to give The fifth step is to help
The final step is to help
evaluate learners' learners information on their learners an opportunity to learners understand and
learners retain and apply the
understanding and ability performance and how to practice and apply new process the information or
information in new and
to apply new information or improve. This can include information or skills. This can skills presented. This can
different situations. This can
skills. This can include formal both elaborative and include activities, exercises, or include providing examples,
include providing
assessments such as quizzes corrective feedback and can tasks that require the learner breaking down complex
opportunities for review and
or exams and informal be provided through verbal to use what they have learned. information, or providing a
practice, providing
assessments such as or written means. step-by-step process.
connections to real-world
applications, and encouraging observation or self-
the transfer of learning to reflection.
new contexts.

"Instructional Design: Principles and Applications" (1965) – Robert Gagne

 Generative Learning Select

Learners must select the most relevant incoming sensory

- Mayer and Fiorella information (such as words or graphics).

"Meaningful learning occurs when new information is related to the

learner's existing knowledge, leading to the formation of connections and Organise
Created by the creation of mental models. This type of learning is more durable and

SOI Model
A.Whitworth transferable.” – Mayer and Fiorella Learners must organise the selected information into a
coherent mental representation in the working memory
based on the material’s underlying structure.
Eight Principles
Integrate

Learners must integrate the new representation

constructed in working memory with relevant knowledge
Mapping Drawing Imagining structures stored in long-term memory (such as schemas,
Summarising
categories or principles).
Condensing large Creating visual Creating visual Creating mental
amounts of diagrams or concept representations of images or scenarios Reasons
information into a maps to show the information, such as to help with
brief summary. relationships between illustrations or understanding the Transfer of learning: Enacting and teaching strategies encourage
different pieces of diagrams. retention of learners to apply what they have learned to new situations and
information. information. contexts, promoting the transfer of learning.

The spacing effect: When using strategies such as self-testing,

learners can revisit the material over time, improving long-term
retention through the spacing effect.

Motivation: These strategies can help Increase learner motivation

Self-Testing Self-Explanation Teaching Enacting through the creation of meaningful learning contexts

Quizzing oneself on Explaining the Explaining the Elaboration: The strategies encourage learners to connect new
Physically or mentally
the material to assess material to oneself in material to others can information to what they already know, which is a crucial aspect of
simulating the
understanding and one’s own words. help to solidify one’s elaboration and improves retention.
material, such as
identify areas that understanding. acting out a scientific
further review Metacognition: Generative strategies help metacognition by engaging
experiment or solving
various cognitive processes such as abstraction, organisation, imagery,
a math problem.
retrieval and elaboration.

Mayer and Fiorella – Learning as a Generative Activity (2015)

 The Power of Successive Relearning: Improving
Performance on Course Exams and Long-Term Retention Why might these strategies work?

Katherine A. Rawson & John Dunlosky &

The Testing Effect: Testing students on the material is beneficial
Sharon M. Sciartelli
because it activates the retrieval process, enhancing memory and
improving the ability to recall information later.
"Practice tests and spaced study are both highly potent for
enhancing learning and memory”. Katherine A. Rawson & John
Designed by Dunlosky & Sharon M. Sciartelli The Spacing Effect: Long-term memories are formed through a
A.Whitworth process called consolidation, which is the stabilisation of a memory
trace after the initial acquisition. Spacing out study sessions allows
Key Principles the brain to actively process and consolidate the information,
leading to better retention and recall.

Interleaved practice is beneficial because it encourages the brain to

actively retrieve information from long-term memory rather than rely
The Spacing The Testing Interleaved on short-term memory. Alternating between different skills or topics
Effect Effect Practice requires the brain to switch between different retrieval pathways,
which helps to strengthen the connections between the information
The phenomenon The idea is that actively The method of and improves long-term retention.
where spreading out recalling information alternating between
study sessions over through testing different skills or topics
Consolidation is the process by which the brain strengthens the
time leads to better improves long-term during a study session
connections between neurons to store information in long-term
retention and retention. rather than focusing on
memory. Sleep and rest are essential for this process, and the time
understanding of the one for a prolonged
between studying can help the brain consolidate the material into
material. period.
long-term memory.

When we actively retrieve information, we strengthen the

connections between neurons representing that information
in our brain, making it easier to access that information in the
future. This is thought to be due to a process called long-term
Active Retrieval Consolidation Combating Forgetting potentiation (LTP).

Active retrieval refers to Consolidation is the Combating forgetting

process by which the refers to the idea that Combating forgetting: Successive relearning helps students to
the act of actively trying
brain organises and successive relearning, or avoid the forgetting curve, which is the natural decline in the
to recall information,
strengthens new reviewing the material at retention of information over time. Relearning the information
rather than passively
information in long- spaced intervals, helps periodically helps refresh the memory trace and strengthens the
reviewing it, which is
term memory over to avoid the forgetting connections between neurons, making it more accessible in the
known to enhance
time. curve. future.
memory.

Inspired by -The Power of Successive Relearning: Improving Performance on Course Exams and Long-Term Retention
 Novice Learners Further Reading
- A brief summary
John Sweller, an educational psychologist and cognitive scientist,
Created by
A.Whitworth has proposed the "Cognitive Load Theory", which suggests that
novice learners benefit from explicit instruction as it reduces the
To be considered – Novice Learners amount of cognitive load.

Robert Gagne: Developed Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction,

which describes how to design effective instruction for novice
learners.

Limited Surface Mistakes External

They have limited They are more likely They are more likely Often depend Potential recommendations
prior knowledge and to rely on surface- to make mistakes more on external
experience in a given level processing when learning, as cues and guidance,
subject, making it strategies, such as they have not yet such as instructions 1: Provide clear, concise and well-organised instructions or
difficult to process rote memorisation, developed the or examples, to explanations.
and retain new rather than deeper necessary complete tasks and
information. conceptual knowledge to solve problems. 2: Provide concrete examples to support understanding and
understanding. process and apply retention.
the information
accurately. 3: Provide opportunities for practice and retrieval to build skills and
confidence.

4: Provide non-judgemental feedback and guidance to help learners

identify and correct errors and mistakes.

5: Provide opportunities for learners to connect new information to

Transfer Abstract Metacognition Motivation
their prior knowledge and experiences.

They may struggle They may need help They may struggle They may have 6: Provide graphic organisers to help learners connect new
with the transfer understanding with metacognition difficulty with information and existing knowledge.
of learning or abstract or complex or the ability to motivation and
applying what they concepts as they lack reflect on and engagement, as 7: Provide opportunities for metacognitive reflection and self-
have learned in one the necessary monitor their own they may still need evaluation.
context to another, background learning, as they to see the
as they have not knowledge to have not yet relevance or value 8: Provide opportunities for learners to see the relevance and value of
yet developed the connect to the new developed the of the material they the material they are learning through real-world applications and
necessary information. necessary are learning. connections to their prior knowledge.
connections metacognitive skills.

Novice Learners – Created by A.Whitworth

 Teaching and Learning
Desirable Difficulties - Robert A. Bjork

"The challenge of learning is to find the right balance between the level
of difficulty that is optimal for the learner and the level of difficulty that
Desirable is achievable for the learner.“ – Robert A. Bjork
Difficulties

7 Desirable Difficulties

Interleaving Retrieval Spacing Variability Elaboration Generation Examples

Interleaving is a Retrieval is the The idea behind By introducing When you elaborate When you generate When presented with
learning strategy process of recalling spacing is that by variability into your on what you are something new, you concrete examples,
in which learners or recalling spreading out your learning and study learning, you create use higher-level you must use your
study different information from study sessions; you habits, you can more associations cognitive processes prior knowledge and
topics or practice memory. When we can better retain the better retain the and connections with and draw on your understanding to
different skills in a retrieve information information and material over the the material, which prior knowledge connect with the
mixed or from memory, it perform better on long term because helps anchor it in your and understanding material and relate it
interleaved becomes more tests. This is because you are constantly memory and makes it to create something to something you
fashion rather stable and less spacing allows you activating and more accessible later original and already know.
than focusing on susceptible to to review the strengthening on. Elaboration can meaningful. This Connecting can help
just one at a time. forgetting. In other material multiple different neural also help to make the process of strengthen the
This forces words, retrieval can times, which helps pathways in your material more generation can help relationships in your
learners to help strengthen our to strengthen the brain. This ensures meaningful. to strengthen the memory and improve
compare and memory of the connections in your that the material has connections in your material retention.
contrast material. material. memory and a more significant memory.
improve retention. meaning.

"Memory and Metamemory Considerations in the Training of Human Beings" (Bjork and Bjork, 1994).
 Teaching and Learning
The Theory of Meaningful Learning – David Ausubel

"Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and ideas into
the learner's existing cognitive structure, or schema. When new information is
related to a learner's prior knowledge, it is more easily understood and
Meaningful remembered. Thus, the role of prior knowledge in learning is critical, as it serves
Learning as the foundation upon which new information is built.“ – David Ausubel

Key Principles

Active Critical Related Motivated Modified Meaningful

Learning is an active Prior knowledge plays a New information is Learning is more The learner’s cognitive The learner’s memory
process in which the critical role in learning, more likely to be effective when the structure, or mental is more likely to retain
learner constructs new providing a framework meaningful if it is learner is intrinsically organisation of meaningful
meaning from new for organising and related to the learner’s motivated and knowledge, can be information over the
information. All learners understanding new existing knowledge and engaged. When modified through long term. When
make meaning differently. information. Meaningful is presented logically intrinsically motivated, learning. This process learning is meaningful,
The teacher should help learning involves and hierarchically. students are more likely of modifying the it can be used in
learners connect new assimilating the new Knowledge will be more to pay attention to the cognitive structure is various contexts.
knowledge and their concept or idea into the easily ‘subsumed’ material, ask questions, known as Meaningful learning is
existing understanding to existing cognitive when more general and seek additional "accommodation," It in contrast to rote
facilitate meaningful structure or schema. concepts are presented resources to help them involves the learner learning, in which
learning. before more specific learn. adapting their existing information is
ones. understanding to memorised without
incorporate new any meaningful
information. connection.

Ausubel, D.P. (1968). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. Holt, Rinehart and Winston
 Rethinking the Model of Memory

To start learning it, students must link it. Therefore

Deep, Meaningful and it is important to design instruction that activates
the appropriate prior knowledge. Knowledge is encoded
Rich Learning. You have some understanding of the
1
Created by
A.Whitworth New Existing knowledge because you can relate it to
knowledge knowledge something you already know. However,
the knowledge is new, fragile, and likely
Knowledge is retained to decay.
and meaningful
Knowledge is meaningful
because it is easily accessible. Encode
There is a deep understanding,
and it can be independently If knowledge isn’t
used in various contexts consolidated, it will decay
(transferable). Connecting new and therefore be
knowledge to existing inaccessible.
knowledge
We want to secure the
memory trace. We then want
3 to develop understanding
and the level of processing.
Consolidate Therefore, plenty of spaced
Retain Reconsolidate retrieval is needed, which
increases in scope and
For knowledge to be complexity.
retained and meaningful,
we must continue to
revisit and use it in Ensuring knowledge
Ensuring the learning is
various contexts so that becomes easily accessible
made more secure and
it is transferable. This will and meaningful
understanding developed Knowledge is
ensure that knowledge is
consolidated and
flexible, durable and
valuable.
reconsolidated
Knowledge is accessible,
and you have a relatively
strong understanding
because you can link it to
other areas of study.

2 However, you sometimes

struggle to apply this
knowledge in unique
situations independently.
"Learning is a continuous process” - Eric Kandel

Trying to deliberately increase the chances of learning – A.Whitworth

 Recommendations
Informed Teaching and Learning
Elaboration: Encoding new information in a meaningful and
Deliberately increasing the chances of learning connected way to existing knowledge. For example, relating new
information to personal experiences or linking it to other concepts.

"Memory is the glue that binds our mental lives together, giving us Rehearsal: Repeating new information to maintain it in working
continuity and coherence from one day to the next, from one year memory; this can be done by verbalising or writing the information.
Created by to the next, and from one decade to the next.” Daniel L. Schacter Visual imagery: Creating mental images of new information to help
A.Whitworth make it more memorable.

Organisation: Grouping similar items together or organising

The Seven Sins of Memory information logically to make it more easily retrievable later.

Chunking: Breaking down information into smaller, more

manageable chunks, making it easier to process and recall.

"The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers“ (2001) – Daniel L Schacter Distributed practice: Spacing out studying or reviewing
information over time, rather than cramming it all into one session.

Transience Absentmindedness Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence

Transience refers to Absentmindedness Blocking refers to Misattribution Suggestibility is the Bias refers to the Persistence is the
the tendency for refers to the the temporary refers to the tendency to tendency for tendency for
memories to fade tendency to forget inability to retrieve tendency to incorporate false or memories to be traumatic or
over time. As time information because a memory. This can attribute a memory distorted influenced by one's unwanted
passes, memories of a lack of happen when we to the wrong information into beliefs, expectations, memories to
become less attention or can't recall a word, source. This can one's memories. This and emotions. Our intrude into
accessible and less concentration. This name or specific happen when we can happen when we experiences, consciousness.
detailed. This is a can occur when we detail, even though remember an event are exposed to expectations, and This is a symptom
normal process and are distracted or the information is or information but misinformation or emotions can shape of certain mental
is thought to occur focused on other stored in our are still determining when the how we perceive and health conditions,
because the neural things. This can memory. This can be where or when we suggestions of others remember such as post-
connections that happen with due to factors such learned it. This is influence our information. Our traumatic stress
represent a memory everyday memories as stress, a lack of common when memory. This can perspective can disorder (PTSD).
weaken with time. such as where you cues or the presence similar information occur when people distort our These memories
left your keys or of too many similar from different are questioned about memories, leading to can be distressing
phone. memories. sources becomes events, and leading a potentially and can disrupt
mixed up in our questions affect their inaccurate daily life.
memory. answers. recollection.

"The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers“ (2001) – Daniel L Schacter
 Teaching and Learning
Successive relearning - Harry P. Bahrick

“Forgetting is a selective process, and what is forgotten first are the aspects of
the material that are not well learned." - Henry L. Bahrick (1984)
Successive The initial point of mastery = A point where the information is well-encoded
Relearning in long-term memory and can be retrieved with minimal effort and errors.

Key Principles

Decay Spacing Overlearning Elaboration Interference Test-enhanced

The decay principle The spacing principle The overlearning The elaboration The interference The test-enhanced
states that memories states that distributing principle states that principle states that principle states that learning principle states
gradually weaken over study sessions over time memories are memories are better memories are more that memories are better
time unless periodically leads to better retention strengthened when retained when they easily forgotten when retained when they are
rehearsed. The rehearsal than cramming all the practised beyond the are related to other they are similar to other tested (i.e., retrieved).
process helps retain study sessions into a short point of initial mastery. information already in memories already in When we actively
information in long-term period. The spacing effect This strengthens the long-term memory. long-term memory. retrieve information, it
memory by reactivating also allows the learner to neural connections that Bahrick proposed that Bahrick also suggested requires us to engage
and strengthening the review the information in encode the information the more connections that organising with it in a deeper way,
neural connections that different contexts, which and makes it more between new information in a which can help us to
encode the information. helps to strengthen the resistant to decay over information and meaningful way and understand the material
You will first forget the connections between the time. However, time existing knowledge, linking it to existing better and create more
aspects that are not well- knowledge and the constraints need to be the stronger the knowledge can become connections between the
learned. context, making it more considered. memory trace will be more distinctive, making new information and
accessible and easier to and the longer the it less likely to be existing knowledge.
recall later. information will be confused with other
retained. similar information.

“Lifespan maintenance of intelligence: On the possible role of retrieval processes" 1984

 Teaching and Learning Experts
Experts, according to Sweller, have large stores of automated
Cognitive Load Theory – John Sweller long-term memories, which are acquired through extensive
practice and repetition. Experts have developed schemas and
"The human working memory has a limited capacity, mental models that allow them to process information quickly
and efficiently.
and the complexity of the material being learned can
exceed this capacity. If this happens, learning will not
Designed by occur.“ John Sweller
A.Whitworth Novices
Novices lack the relevant long-term memories, which are
acquired through extensive practice and repetition, and
Key Principles therefore, they rely heavily on their working memory to
process and understand new information. They don't have the
schemas and mental models that experts have.
Germane load theory refers to the idea that cognitive load can
benefit learning when it facilitates organising and integrating
new information with existing knowledge. Germane load is the
Germane mental effort required to form new schemas or mental
Cognitive Load representations that make the information more meaningful and
Recommendations
easier to remember.
Limit the amount of information presented at one time to reduce
cognitive overload.
Things to consider Use worked examples and scaffolding to help students learn new
material.

Intrinsic Extraneous Use spacing and interleaved practice to distribute the learning over
Cognitive Load Cognitive Load time and promote retention.

Extraneous cognitive load refers to the Activating prior knowledge is one way to minimise extraneous load
Intrinsic cognitive load is the inherent
difficulty of the task itself. It is the mental unnecessary mental effort caused by and increase the germane load.
effort required to understand the task, the poor instructional design, such as poor
material being learned, or the information layout, irrelevant information, or a lack of Use transfer-appropriate processing to ensure that the material being
being processed. Intrinsic cognitive load organisation. It can negatively impact learned is similar to the material that will be used in the future.
can vary depending on the nature of the learning by making it harder for learners
task or information, such as the level of to focus on the task or information at Use self-explanation and elaboration strategies to help students
abstraction. hand. integrate new information with their existing knowledge.

Cognitive Load During Problem-Solving: Effects on Learning (1988) – John Sweller

 Cognitive Neuroscience – The Basics
Memory
Deliberately increasing the chances of learning

"Memory is the glue that binds our mental lives together, giving us Declarative memory (memory for facts and events)
continuity and coherence from one day to the next, from one year
Designed by to the next, and from one decade to the next.” Daniel L. Schacter
Non-declarative memory (memory for skills and habits)
A.Whitworth

Types
Key Principles
Semantic memory (knowledge of concepts and facts)

Episodic memory (memory of personal experiences)

Multiple Formation Plasticity

Synapse formation: Neural plasticity:

Memory is not a single Recommendations
The formation of new Memory storage relies
process but is made up on changes in the
synapses is thought to
of multiple systems that strength of neural Encourage students to actively engage with the material and
be an essential
work together to connections, known as connect with their prior knowledge.
mechanism for memory
support different types neural plasticity.
storage.
of memory. Practice and repetition are important for the formation of new
synapses and the strengthening of neural connections.

Encourage students to engage in regular physical exercise and to

get adequate sleep.

Consolidation Reconsolidation Stored Provide multiple opportunities for encoding and retrieval of
information.
Memory Neocortex: The
Medial temporal lobe:
reconsolidation refers neocortex is vital for the
The medial temporal Provide students with the context and background information to
to the process by organisation, retrieval
lobe, particularly the help them understand the relevance of the material
which memories are and processing of
hippocampus, plays a
updated and stored memories.
crucial role in forming Encourage students to reflect on their learning, make
integrated with new
and consolidating long- connections, and integrate new information with their prior
information every time
term memories. knowledge.
they are retrieved.

Further Reading: NEUROCOGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN MEMORY- Ken A. Paller

 Effective Learning Techniques Practice Testing (Retrieval)

 Taking a test requires actively retrieving the information from memory,

Dunlosky et al. strengthening the memory trace and making it more durable.
Created by
 Taking a test provides immediate feedback on what has been learned
A.Whitworth
and what still needs to be learned, allowing learners to focus their
Rating Ten Learning Techniques study efforts.

Distributed Practice
Practice Distributed  Spacing helps keep the material in memory and less prone to decay. It
Testing Practice also helps to make the material more easily accessible and retrievable
in the long term.
Self-testing or taking practice tests Implementing a schedule of practice
 Spacing out study sessions over time allows more opportunities for the
over to-be-learned material. that spreads out study activities over
time. material to be retrieved from memory, strengthening the memory trace
and the available cues.
High
Interleaving

 Interleaving promotes deeper processing: When learners are exposed

Elaborative
Interrogation to a variety of related material in a single study session, they are forced
Interleaving Self-Explanation
to think more deeply about the material and how it relates to other
Implement a practice or study Generating an explanation for Explaining how new information is concepts.
schedule that mixes different why an explicitly stated fact or related to known information or  Interleaving can also help to organise knowledge in long-term memory
kinds of problems and material concept is true. explaining steps taken during by promoting the formation of connections between different pieces of
within a single study session. problem-solving. information.
Moderate Elaborative Interrogation

 Elaborative Interrogation encourages students to generate explanations

and connections between new information and their prior knowledge.
 Elaborative interrogation encourages students to actively process the
Highlighting Summarisation Rereading Mnemonic Imagery information they are studying rather than passively reading or listening.

Marking Writing Restudying text Using Attempting to Self-Explanation

potentially summaries (of material again keywords and form mental
important various lengths) after an initial mental imagery images of text  Self-explanation can also help activate prior knowledge and integrate
portions of to-be- of to-be-learned reading. to associate materials while existing knowledge with new knowledge.
learned materials texts. verbal reading or
 When learners generate their own explanations for the material they
while reading. materials. listening.
are studying, they are forced to think more deeply about the material
and how it relates to other concepts.
Low

Improving Students’ Learning with Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology – Dunlosky et al.