PHYSICS

2
CAPACITORS
IN SERIES
AND
PARALLEL
 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
A circuit diagram is a simplified
representation of an actual
circuit.
Circuit symbols are used to
represents the various elements.
Lines are used to represent wires.
The battery’s positive terminal is
indicated by the longer line.
 CAPACITORS IN
SYMBOLS
When capacitors are first
connected in a circuit, electrons
are transferred from the left plate
through the battery to the right
plate, leaving the left plate
positively charged and the right
plate negatively charged.

 CAPACITORS IN
PARALLEL
Capacitors in Parallel have the same volatage
V across each one. The equivalent capacitor
ab
C is one that stores the same total charge Q
eq
when connected to the same battery.
That is, in the figure,

Q= Q + Q + Q = C1 V + C2V + C3V
1 2 3
Also Q= CV so the equivalent capacitance is:

C eq= C1 + C2+ C 3
 CAPACITORS IN
SERIES
When a battery is connected to the circuit,
electrons are transferred from the left plate of
C to the right plate of C through the battery.
1 2
As this negative charge accumulates on the
right plate of C , an equivalent amount of
2
negative charge is removed from the left plate
of C , leaving it with an excess positive charge.
All of the right plates gain charges of –Q and
all the left plates have charges of +Q.
 CAPACITORS IN
SERIES
Capacitors in Series each have the same
charge Q their plates. That is in the figure, the
equivalent capacitor has the same charge
1
across the total voltage drop: So,

V= V + V + V and Q= C V = C V =C V = C V
1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 eq
This results in an equivalent capacitance:
Note that The formula
is for the inverse of C
eq
and not for Ceq itself!
 ENERGY
STORED IN
CAPACITORS
ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITORS
Charge capacitor by transferring bits of charge
dq at a time from bottom to top plate. Can use
a battery to do this. Battery does work that
increases potential energy of capacitor.
q is magnitude of charge on plates
V= q/C V across plates
dU = V dq increase in potential energy
 ELECTRIC
CURRENT,
RESISTANCE
AND OHM'S
LAW
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current is defined to be the rate at which charge flows. A large current, such
as that used to start a truck engine, moves a large amount of charge in a small time,
whereas a small current, such as that used to operate a hand-held calculator, moves
a small amount of charge over a long period of time. In equation form, electric
current I is defined to be

where ΔQ is the amount of charge passing through a given area in time Δt . (As in
previous chapters, initial time is often taken to be zero, in which case Δt = t .) (See
Figure 20.2.) The SI unit for current is the ampere (A), named for the French physicist
André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836). Since I = ΔQ / Δt , we see that an ampere is one
coulomb per second:

1 A = 1 C/s
Not only are fuses and circuit breakers rated in amperes (or amps),
so are many electrical appliances.
Current = Flow of Charge

Figure 20.2 The rate of flow of charge is current. An ampere is the flow of
one coulomb through an area in one second.
(a) What is the current involved when a truck battery sets in
motion 720 C of charge in 4.00 s while starting an engine?

Strategy
We can use the definition of current in the equation I = ΔQ / Δt to find the current
in part (a), since charge and time are given.

Solution for (a)

Entering the given values for charge and time into the definition of current gives

Discussion for (a)

This large value for current illustrates the fact that a large charge is moved in a small
amount of time. The currents in these “starter motors” are fairly large because large
frictional forces need to be overcome when setting something in motion.
 DRIFT
VELOCITY
DRIFT VELOCITY
Electrical signals are known to move very rapidly. Telephone conversations carried by currents in wires cover
large distances without noticeable delays. Lights come on as soon as a switch is flicked. Most electrical signals
8
carried by currents travel at speeds on the order of 10 m/s , a significant fraction of the speed of light. Interestingly,
the individual charges that make up the current move much more slowly on average, typically drifting at speeds on
-4
the order of 10 m/s . How do we reconcile these two speeds, and what does it tell us about standard conductors?
The high speed of electrical signals results from the fact that the force between charges acts rapidly at a distance.
Thus, when a free charge is forced into a wire, as in Figure 20.5, the incoming charge pushes other charges ahead of
it, which in turn push on charges farther down the line. The density of charge in a system cannot easily be
increased, and so the signal is passed on rapidly. The resulting electrical shock wave moves through the system at
nearly the speed of light. To be precise, this rapidly moving signal or shock wave is a rapidly propagating change in
electric field.

Figure 20.5 When charged particles are forced into this volume of a conductor, an equal number are quickly forced
to leave. The repulsion between like charges makes it difficult to increase the number of charges in a volume. Thus,
as one charge enters, another leaves almost immediately, carrying the signal rapidly forward.
 Good conductors have large numbers of free charges in them. In metals, the free charges are free electrons.
Figure 20.6 shows how free electrons move through an ordinary conductor. The distance that an individual electron
can move between collisions with atoms or other electrons is quite small. The electron paths thus appear nearly
random, like the motion of atoms in a gas. But there is an electric field in the conductor that causes the electrons to
drift in the direction shown (opposite to the field, since they are negative). The drift velocity vd is the average velocity
of the free charges. Drift velocity is quite small, since there are so many free charges. If we have an estimate of the
density of free electrons in a conductor, we can calculate the drift velocity for a given current. The larger the density,
the lower the velocity required for a given current.
Vd

Figure 20.6 Free electrons moving in a conductor make many collisions with other electrons and atoms. The path of one
electron is shown. The average velocity of the free charges is called the drift velocity, v , and it is in the direction opposite
d
to the electric field for electrons. The collisions normally transfer energy to the conductor, requiring a constant supply of
energy to maintain a steady current.
OHM’S LAW:
RESISTANCE
AND SIMPLE
CIRCUITS
OHM’S LAW
The current that flows through most substances is directly
proportional to the voltage V applied to it. The German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm (1787–1854) was the first to demonstrate experimentally
that the current in a metal wire is directly proportional to the voltage
applied:

This important relationship is known as Ohm’s law. It can be viewed as a

cause-and-effect relationship, with voltage the cause and current the
effect. This is an empirical law like that for friction—an experimentally
observed phenomenon. Such a linear relationship doesn’t always occur.
 RESISTANCE AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
If voltage drives current, what impedes it? The electric property that impedes current (crudely
similar to friction and air resistance) is called resistance R . Collisions of moving charges with atoms
and molecules in a substance transfer energy to the substance and limit current. Resistance is
defined as inversely proportional to current, or

Thus, for example, current is cut in half if resistance doubles. Combining the relationships of current
to voltage and current to resistance gives

This relationship is also called Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law in this form really defines resistance for certain
materials. Ohm’s law (like Hooke’s law) is not universally valid. The many substances for which Ohm’s
law holds are called ohmic. These include good conductors like copper and aluminum, and some
poor conductors under certain circumstances. Ohmic materials have a resistance R that is
independent of voltage V and current I . An object that has simple resistance is called a resistor, even
if its resistance is small. The unit for resistance is an ohm and is given the symbol Ω (upper case Greek
omega). Rearranging I = V/R gives R = V/I , and so the units of resistance are 1 ohm = 1 volt per ampere:
Figure 20.8 shows the schematic for a simple circuit. A simple circuit has a single voltage source
and a single resistor. The wires connecting the voltage source to the resistor can be assumed to
have negligible resistance, or their resistance can be included in R .

Figure 20.8 A simple electric circuit in which a closed path for current to flow is supplied by
conductors (usually metal wires) connecting a load to the terminals of a battery, represented by the
red parallel lines. The zigzag symbol represents the single resistor and includes any resistance in
the connections to the voltage source.
RESISTANCE
AND
RESISTIVITY
INTRODUCTION
Resistivity is the tendency of a material to behave as a resistor. You already know that not
everything conducts electricity equally well, and that some materials (like copper) resist
very little, while others (like rubber) provide enough resistance to effectively prevent the
flow of current. Resistivity is a fundamental material property (like density or melting
point), while the total resistance (R) depends on the material, the geometry, and the
temperature. The dependence on geometry (really, a volume dependence: crosssectional
area (A) and length(L)) can be quantified:

where ρ is the resistivity. As you might expect, a longer wire (of any material) creates
greater resistance, and a fatter wire (greater crosssection) reduces total resistance. We
can easily test the length dependence, and simultaneously find the resistivity of an
unknown wire.
 DEVICES
MEASURING
CURRENTS
AND
VOLTAGES
 VOLTMETER
a device that measures
voltages of direct current or
alternating current on a
scale commonly in volts,
millivolts, or kilovolts. Many
voltmeters are digital that
give readings as numerical
displays.
 AMMETER
a device used to measure
either alternating or direct
current. We know that
ampere is the unit of
current. Since this device
measures the value in
amperes, it's known as
ammeter.
 ANALOG METERS: GALVANOMETERS
Analog meters have a needle
that swivels to point at
numbers on a scale, as opposed
to digital meters, which have
numerical readouts similar to a
handheld calculator. The heart
of most analog meters is a
device called a galvanometer,
denoted by G.
RESISTORS
IN SERIES
AND
PARALLEL
 RESISTORS IN SERIES
When resistors are connected in series, the total voltage
(or potential difference) across all the resistors is equal to
the sum of the voltages across each resistor.

In this circuit the following applies.

I1 = I2 = I3
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
and, RT = R1 + R2 + R3
 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
When resistors are connected in parallel, the supply current
is equal to the sum of the currents through each resistor.
The currents in the branches of a parallel circuit add up to
the supply current.
lIn order to calculate the total resistance of two resistors
connected in parallel, this equation is used.
 COMBINATION OF SERIES AND
PARALLEL
When solving problems with combination circuits, use this series of steps.
1. For resistors connected in parallel, calculate the single equivalent
resistance that can replace them.
2. For resistors in series, calculate the single equivalent resistance that
can replace them.
3. By repeating steps 1 and 2, you can continually reduce the circuit until
only a single equivalent resistor remains. Then you can determine the
total circuit current. The voltage drops and currents though individual
resistors can then be calculated.
Example
In the combination circuit sketched below, find the equivalent resistance
for the circuit, find the total current through the circuit, and find the
current through each individual resistor.
ELECTROMOTIVE
FORCE

 INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of
current offered by the cells and batteries themselves resulting
in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is measured in
Ohms.

e = IR + Ir or e = V + Ir.

Where e is the electromotive force (Volts), I is the current (A),

R is the load resistance, and r is the cell’s internal resistance in
ohms.
 TERMINAL VOLTAGE
The voltage output of a device is called its
terminal voltage V and is given by V=emf−Ir,
where I is the electric current and is positive
when flowing away from the positive terminal
of the voltage source.
 MULTIPLE VOLTAGE SOURCES
Multiple power sources can be connected in series or
parallel in order to meet the different voltage or
current output requirements for various applications:
Power sources are connected in series to increase
the voltage output.
Power sources are connected in parallel to increase
the current capacity
KIRCHHOFF'S
RULES

 RULE NO. 1:
THE JUNCTION RULE
“At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of
currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of that node, or: The algebraic sum
of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a
point is zero”.
 RULE NO. 2:
THE LOOP RULE
The sum of all the electric potential differences around a
loop is zero.
PROCEDURE FOR APPLYING RULES
1. Assume all voltage sources and resistances are
given. (If not label them V1, V2 ..., R1, R2 etc)
2. Label each branch with a branch current. (I1, I2, I3
etc)
3. Apply junction rule at each node.
4. Applying the loop rule for each of the independent
loops of the circuit.
5. Solve the equations by substitutions/linear
manipulation.
Example: Express the currents in junction “a” as an
equality.

Answer: Applying
the junction rule,
we obtain that:
 DC CIRCUITS
CONTAINING
RESISTORS AND
CAPACITORS

 CHARGING A CAPACITOR
If we connect a capacitor, a resistor, and a voltage
source in series, the capacitor will be charged up until
its voltage value is equal to the voltage source.
Charging of capacitors means we store energy in the
capacitor in electric field form between the capacitor
plates.
q=ϵC(1−eCR−t​)
where q is the charge on the capacitor at time t,CR is
called the time constant, ϵ is the emf of the battery.
DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
If the plates of a charged capacitor are connected
through a conducting wire, the capacitor gets
discharged. Again there is a flow of charge
through the wires and hence there is a current.
q=QeCR−t​
where q is the charge on the capacitor at time t,Q
is the charge on the capacitor at time t=0 and CR
is called the time constant,
 RC CIRCUITS FOR TIMING
An RC circuit is a circuit containing
resistance and capacitance. As presented
in Capacitance, the capacitor is an
electrical component that stores electric
charge, storing energy in an electric field.
THANK YOU
FOR
LISTENING.