TEMA 5: La comunicación oral. Elementos y normas que rigen el discurso oral.

Rutinas y
fórmulas habituales. Estrategias propias de la comunicación oral.

Contents:

1. Introduction

2. Oral Communication

2.1. General Characteristics: elements and rules

2.2. Theoretical approaches: Supremacy of spoken language; Writing and Speaking at the
same level; Supremacy of writing

3. Structure and Formal elements

3.1. Features of the spoken language: Lexical, Grammatical, Discourse

3.2. The spoken channel: Prosody (prosodic features, individual aspects of speech)

4. Routines, formulae and strategies.

4.1. Specific functions of speech

4.2. Function and formulae

4.3. Strategies in oral communication

5. Didactic Application

6. Conclusion

7. Bibliography

1. INTRODUCTION

Although they are treated separately, speech and writing can only be understood in contrast
with each other. However, they are quite different but there is no agreement about what type
of difference separates both. We do not speak as we write, and we do not use spoken and
written language in the same occasions and for the same purposes. In this theme we will
concentrate on spoken language (sometimes isolated, sometimes in comparison with written
language).
2. ORAL COMMUNICATION

2.1. General characteristics: elements and rules

Spoken and written language are two alternative forms of expression since their channel of
communication is fundamentally dissimilar. While writing is transmitted through a visual
channel, spoken is transmitted orally.

Spoken language is: transient, unpredictable, linear in time and an aural/oral process.

Written language is permanent, standardised, persists through time (can be reread in the same
form) and it is a visual/motoric process.

The way discourse is produced influences the nature of the language used, therefore spoken
language is mutable, shifting an difficult to define. Once spoken, it cannot be retrieved or
changed; it is subject to individual characteristics and affected by contextual factors. Speakers
produce many words per minute, can overlap, repeat, clarify, pause, etc.

Receivers need to share sufficient knowledge to get the point. Speakers also share physical
setting (so they can use reference words) It implies high levels of interaction while it is a two-
way process which requires active participation.

Every person implied must: attract the attention of others, express ideas appropriately and
effectively while responding to other people’s utterances.

The spoken channel is considered the natural means of communication and the optimal
channel of private discourse. It is difficult to standardise (mutable nature), and subject to a
wide diversity of forms. They way we speak is marked by the speech patterns of family and
friends (accent and intonation, word choice and grammar).

There is not really a formal/informal difference between oral and written language.

2.2. Theoretical approaches

a. Supremacy of speech

Speech was traditionally the original object of linguistic studies. Writing on the other hand was
considered a means of representing speech, based on sounds.

-Saussure: considered writing had not an independent life, only the representation of
speaking. He distinguishes:

 La Langue (language system) considered real object of study.

 La Langue finds its expression in Parole (Speech)
 Writing

So speech was not object of study because it is transient, unpredictable and context
dependant.
-Leonard Bloomfield saw writing as a sound –recording mechanism.

He believed in the primacy of speech because it precedes writing chronologically (history,

person); there are non-literate communities; it is impossible to decipher written records
without previous knowledge of speech and because alphabetic writing is a poor guide to the
underlying phonemes.

-Chomsky: considers writing in the context of memory processing limitations. To be used when
the sentence is too complicated and can only be understood with the aid of additional
memory.

There is a great contradiction with a non-phonic representation of language (lack of fit

between sounds and letters)

b. Writing and speech on the same level

Writing and speech are considered as a contrast. Linguists accept an underlying system exists
but don’t go on abstract considerations.

The nature of written language is that of the product of the functions it serves in language use.

-William Haas: stated that graphemes are not signs for phonemes, it´s a translation.

-Joseph Vachek: discussed that speech and writing have complementary language functions,
while spoken form carries out dynamic functions, written form carries out static ones. He also
defended that “phonetic” transcription of speech is not writing.

-Uldall: both speech and writing are manifestation lf La Langue.

-MAK Halliday: both emanate from the Language system but differ in form and function. The
development of the writing system has been the product of changes in society.

The main difference is in their intrinsic nature speech-process/writing-product.

c. Supremacy of writing

-McLuhan’s followers saw writing as a powerful force in society (not always good). Studies
concentrated on the personal, social and cultural consequences of literacy. According to them,
a growth of literacy lead to imbalances in society and restrictive laws.

-Linnea Ehri: suggested that the influence of print on our language perception was similar to
calendar or clocks with time. Writing is the prerequisite for analytic thought logical thought
can only be carried out in literate societies.

Now is more like: the need for literacy is part of the development of a society which puts it
into contact with new experiences and modes of thought.
3. STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS

3.1. Features of spoken language

Spoken language is very interactive and it makes use of:

Tag-questions, discourse markers and fillers; deletion of clause elements (when the listener
can fill the missing parts); simplicity of discourse (there is no time for preparation) and use of
words with a wider lexical field less lexical accuracy.

However, in academic lectures or business discussions speakers tend to use norms of the
written channel.

We find characteristic features of spoken language at three levels: lexical, grammatical and
discourse.

a. Lexical features:
 Low lexical density and wide use of grammatical words
 Less abstract vocabulary
 More generalised and simpler vocabulary and semantically prefabricated comment
clauses such as as you know, I see, or now.
 Use of words that depend on the context (reference words)

b. Grammatical features
 Ellipsis
 Abbreviation of verbs
 Ability for phrases (especially noun phrases) to stand as complete utterances.
 Simple and short clauses, little subordination
 Many coordinated sentences (and or no marker)
 Some sentences do not follow grammar (My mum, she´s great)
 Use of what instead of which and is instead of are.
 Active verb forms.

c. Discourse features
 Produced by more than one participant
 Markers of interpersonal dynamics (tag-questions, interruptions, etc.)
 Repetition and echoing
 Reformulation and refinement of utterance (sometimes by cooperation)
3.2. The spoken channel: prosody

There exists an underlying phonological system that makes it possible for people to
understand dialectal differences. There are three kinds of features of spoken English which do
not usually appear in written English: prosodic, paralinguistic and indexical features.

a. Prosodic features: Stress, rhythm and intonation.

They apply to extended portions of speech. They also carry systematic contrast in the meaning.

Stress, rhythm and intonation are all concerned with the perception of relative prominence.

 Stress: considering the prominence with which one part of a word or sentence is
distinguished, it is possible to distinguish different levels of stress. The difference
between stressed and no stressed can be related to linguistic relevance.
 Rhythm: considering the pattern formed by the stresses (peaks of prominence or
beats) occurring at regular intervals of time. English has a stress-timed rhythm falling
on open class items (nouns, verbs, etc.) however, absolute regularity is an exception.
 Intonation: association of relative prominence with high or low pitch. The three most
important tones in English are: falling tone, rising and fall-rise tone.

b. Paralinguistic features: no systematic, not part of grammar. Additional variations: voice

qualities, facial and bodily gestures, etc.

c. Indexical features: not part of language, outside the individual control such as pitch range or
dialect.

3.3. Individual aspects of speech

Spoken language is difficult to standardise. There are four aspects that help us deduce
information from speakers: dialectal, sociological, physical and incidental.

 Dialectal aspects. All the members of a community tend to speak in the same way
 Sociological: position in society, choice of schooling, etc.
 Physical: voice, quality and pitch
 Incidental: who one is speaking to, emotional state, reasons for speaking, etc.
4.ROUTINES, FORMULAE AND STRATEGIES

4.1. Specific routines or functions of speech

These functions are related to different social situations and different social purposes. We use
specific sentences in relation to the aim of the utterance. The same function can be fulfilled by
different kinds of expressions the choice implies different levels of formality, politeness,
certainty, etc.

4.2. Functions and formulae

 Giving or seeking factual information (statements, questions (yes-no, tag, why, in

statement form, etc.); showing agreement or disagreement, expressing likelihood
(show impossibility, possibility, probability or certainly: modal adverbial.)
 Expressing and finding about attitudes to the truth: certainty, doubt or uncertainty,
belief or opinion, appearance, assumption.
 Expressing moral or emotional attitudes: liking or disliking, preference, anticipation of
pressure, hope, disappointment or regret, approval or disapproval, surprise, concern
or worry, etc.
 Influencing people: commands, requests, advice, suggestions, invitations and offers,
acceptance or refusal, warnings, promises, threats, greetings, farewells, etc.

4.3. Strategies in oral communication

In functional and communicative approaches, linguistic competence is seen as a whole group

of factors to make communication possible. The learner needs a series of specific strategies to
have communicative competence, related to the specific function of communication.

 Listening strategies: identifying objects from oral descriptions, getting specific

information from oral texts (to answers, to fill in lacking information, to make the right
choice); making predictions, identifying the main subject, etc.
 Speaking strategies: brainstorming, associating concepts, sequencing information.
5. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

As we have seen, learners need to be aware of how and when to use spoken language. From a
communicative perspective, it would be advisable to practise and raise students’ awareness on
the different language functions, in order to give them tools so that they can use language
accurately, for example, practicing with role plays.

Besides, in order to help with their pronunciation, rhythm and intonation, we can bring short
poems related to interesting topics of the interest of our students.

To make them aware of the differences between oral and written speech we will ask them to
write summaries of information they have listened to or transform an writing into a dialogue
(for higher levels).

6. CONCLUSION

The importance of spoken language is undeniable, that is why students need to learn
strategies in order to become responsible users of language. Also, raising awareness on the
differences between writing and speaking will improve their performances in both fields.
About speech, going through the information covered in this topic with our students can help
them understand and master many aspects taken for granted than can mark the difference
when in use.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language, Cambridge: CUP, 1987

Halliday, MAK, Spoken and Written Language, Oxford: OUP, 1989

Hughes, R, English in Speech and Writing, London: Routledge 1996

Leech, G and Svartvick, J, A Communicative Grammar of English, Harlow: Longman, 1975