Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Program
Control Systems Dynamics
MDPN372

Time Domain Analysis

Time domain response

Transfer functions represents the relations in s-domain between the response and input of a
system.
The system dynamic characteristics can be studied by analyzing the system transfer functions.
The transient and steady state responses of the system are analyzed. The output response of a
system is the sum of two responses: the natural response and the forced response.
In other words, the solution of ordinary differential equation is the sum of homogeneous
solution, and non-homogeneous (particular) solution.

The system response is obtained by using the inverse Laplace. The transfer function numerator
and denominator are factorized.
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚 𝐾(𝑠 + 𝑧1 )(𝑠 + 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠 + 𝑧𝑚 )
= 𝑛 𝑛−1
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝑝1 )(𝑠 + 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )

𝐾 ∏𝑚𝑗=1(𝑠 + 𝑧𝑚 )
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑛 𝑅(𝑠) 𝑚<𝑛
∏𝑖=1(𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )

Poles of a transfer function (×): The poles of a transfer function are the roots of the denominator
of the transfer function. Values which make the denominator zero.

Zeros of a transfer function (○): The zeros of a transfer function are the roots of the numerator
of the transfer function. Values which make the numerator zero.

By factorizing the response s function

𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝐶(𝑠) = + + ⋯+
(𝑠 + 𝑝1 ) (𝑠 + 𝑝2 ) (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )
𝑐(𝑡) = ʆ−1 [𝐶(𝑠)] = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑝1𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑝2𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑒 −𝑝𝑛𝑡
𝑛
𝑐(𝑡) = ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑒 −𝑝𝑖𝑡
𝑖=1

The system poles (roots of the denominator) could be real or complex conjugates.

Effect of pole location

Example:
Find the step response for the transfer function

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𝐶(𝑠) (𝑠 + 2)
=
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 5)
Solution:
1 (𝑠 + 2) 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶(𝑠) = = +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠 (𝑠 + 5)

(𝑠 + 2) 2
𝐴= | =
(𝑠 + 5) 𝑠→0 5
(𝑠 + 2) 3
𝐵= | =
𝑠 𝑠→−5
5

1 (𝑠 + 2) 2⁄5 3⁄5
𝐶(𝑠) = = +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠 (𝑠 + 5)
2 3
𝑐(𝑡) = + 𝑒 −5𝑡
5 5

Matlab
>> num = conv(2,[1 2]);
>> den = [1 5 0];
>> [r,p,k] = residue(num,den);

r=
1.2000
0.8000
p=
-5
0
k=
[]

1 (𝑠 + 2) 0.8 1.2
𝐶(𝑠) = = +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 5) 𝑠 + 0 (𝑠 + 5)

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𝑐(𝑡) = 0.8 + 1.2𝑒 −5𝑡

>> g=tf([1 2],[1 5]);

>> [resp,time]=step(g);
>> plot(time,resp);grid on;
>> xlabel('Time (s)');ylabel('Response');

The poles and zeros are placed in the s-plane where the real part and imaginary part are plotted
on the x and y axis of the plot.

The input function generates the forced (steady state) response.

A pole of the transfer function generates the natural (transient) response.
A pole on the real axis generates an exponential response. The farther to the left a pole is on
the negative real axis, the faster the exponential transient response will decay to zero.
The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the forced and natural responses.

Time domain specifications

The specifications of a system response are defined as follows:
1. Rise time, Tr: The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 of the final value to 0.9 of
the final value.
2. Peak time, Tp: The time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.
3. Percent overshoot, %OS: The amount that the waveform overshoots the steady state, or final,
value at the peak time, expressed as a percentage of the steady state value.
4. Settling time, Ts: The time required for the transient’s damped oscillations to reach and stay
within ± 2% (or ± 5%) of the steady-state value.

Response of first order system

Define the first order transfer function.

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 𝑎 1 1
𝐺(𝑠) = = =
𝑠 + 𝑎 1 𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝑎
Define the time constant 𝜏 = 1⁄𝑎
The unit step response
1 1
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠) =
𝑠 (𝜏𝑠 + 1)
−𝑎𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒

Steady state Css

𝐶𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐(𝑡 = ∞) = 1
Or using the final value
1 1
𝐶𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠 =1
𝑠→0 𝑠 (𝜏𝑠 + 1)

t (s) τ = 1/a 2τ = 2/a 3τ = 3/a 4τ = 4/a

C/Css 0.63 0.87 0.95 0.98
%𝑂𝑆 = 0
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇(0.9𝐶𝑠𝑠 ) − 𝑇(0.1𝐶𝑠𝑠 )
𝑇𝑟 = 2.31𝜏 − 0.11𝜏 = 2.2𝜏 = 2.2/𝑎
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇(0.98𝐶𝑠𝑠 ) = 4𝜏 = 4/𝑎

The first order transfer function can be experimentally identified by obtaining the system
response.
𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑐(𝑡 = 0)
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = 𝑎 = 1/𝜏
𝑑𝑡

Response of second order system

The transfer function of a second order system is given as
𝜔𝑛2
𝐺(𝑠) = 2
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2

The natural frequency ‘ωn’ of a second-order system is the frequency of oscillation of the
system without damping. The damping ratio ‘ζ’ defines the amount of relative damping in the
system. The poles of the transfer function are,
𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √𝜁 2 − 1

The system response as function of the damping ratio ‘ζ’ is summarized as follows

ζ Poles Response
Undamped system 𝑠1,2 = ±𝑗𝜔𝑛 Sustained oscillation
𝜁=0
Frequency of oscillation 𝜔𝑛

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 Underdamped system 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 Damped oscillation
0<𝜁<1
Frequency of oscillation
𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2

Critically damped system 𝑠1,2 = −𝜔𝑛 Critical damping

𝜁=1
No oscillation
2 superimposed first order
poles

Overdamped system 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √𝜁 2 − 1 Overdamping

𝜁>1
No oscillation
2 first order poles

Underdamped second order time domain specifications

The step response of an underdamped second order system is given by
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝜔𝑛2 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑠 + 𝐾3
𝐶(𝑠) = = +
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 ) 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2

Expanding by partial fraction

𝜁
(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2
1 √1 − 𝜁 2
𝐶(𝑠) = +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 )

Taking the inverse Laplace

1
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 𝑡 − 𝜑)
√1 − 𝜁2
where
𝜁
𝜑 = tan−1
√1 − 𝜁 2

A plot of this response for various values of ‘ζ’, plotted along a time axis normalized to the
natural frequency.

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Peak evaluation time Tp
𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝜔𝑛
= 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 √1 − 𝜁 2

Response peaks at
𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 𝑡 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋
𝑡=
𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2
The first peak (overshoot) at 𝑛 = 1
𝜋 𝜋
𝑇𝑝 = =
𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑑
Overshoot evaluation %OS
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐶𝑠𝑠
%𝑂𝑆 = × 100
𝐶𝑠𝑠
2
%𝑂𝑆 = 100𝑒 −(𝜁𝜋⁄√1−𝜁 )

The amount of overshoot can be used to identify the amount of damping ‘ζ’.
The frequency of oscillation is used to identify the damped frequency of oscillation ‘ωd’.

Settling time ‘Ts’

For ±2 % settling time,
1
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 = 0.02
√1 − 𝜁 2
The settling time can be approximated as,
4
𝑇𝑠 =
𝜁𝜔𝑛

Rise time ‘Tr’

If we consider the curve for ζ = 0.5 to be an average, the rise time from y = 0.1 Css to y = 0.9Css
is roughly approximated as,
1.8
𝑇𝑟 ≅
𝜔𝑛

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Example:
Given the system shown having a torsional stiffness K=5 Nm/rad, find J and D to yield 20%
overshoot and settling time 2 seconds for a step input of torque T.

Solution:
The system is governed by the second order differential equation
𝐽𝜃̈ + 𝐷𝜃̇ + 𝐾𝜃 = 𝑇
Taking Laplace
𝜃(𝑠) 1
= 2
𝑇(𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾
The system transfer function
1/𝐽 1 𝐾/𝐽
𝐺(𝑠) = =( )
𝐷 𝐾 𝐾 𝑠2 + 𝐷 𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑠2 + 𝐽 𝑠 + 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
Comparing to the 2nd order differential equation
𝐾 𝐷
𝜔𝑛 = √ 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 =
𝐽 𝐽
2
100𝑒 −(𝜁𝜋⁄√1−𝜁 ) = 20
−𝜁𝜋
= ln 0.2
√1 − 𝜁 2
𝜁 = 0.456
4
𝑇𝑠 = =2 𝜔𝑛 = 4.39 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝐾 𝐾
𝜔𝑛 = √ = (4.39)2 4.39 𝐽 = 0.26 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
𝐽 𝐽
𝐷 𝐷
2𝜁𝜔𝑛 = = 2(2) 𝐷 = 1.04 𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐽 0.26

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