Lecture on Microsystems Design and Manufacture

Chapter 12
Introduction to Nanoscale Engineering
“If I were asked for an area of science and
engineering that will most likely produce the
breakthroughs of tomorrow, I would point to
nanoscale science and engineering.”
-Neal Lane
Former Assistant to President Clinton for
A Futuristic Nanoscale Engineering Product:
an artistic view of a step-shaft built with atoms Science and Technology

“Nanotechnology has given us the tools…to play with the ultimate toy box of nature
– atoms and molecules. Everything is made from it…..The possibilities to create
New things appear limitless.” by Horst Stormer, a Nobel Laureate in physics

“the way of ingeniously controlling the building of small and large structures, with
intricate properties; it is the way of the future, a way of precise, controlled building,
with incidentally, environmental benignness built in by design.” by Ronald Hoffmann,
a Nobel Laureate in chemistry.
 Outline
Part 1 Overview of Nanotechnology

Part 2 Overview of Nanofabrication Techniques

Part 3 Prevalent Nanoscale Products and Applications

Part 4 Nanoscale Engineering Analysis

Part 5 Measurements of Nanoscale Material Properties

Part 6 Challenges in Nanoscale Engineering

Part 7 Future Outlook of nanotechnology and

Negative social Impacts

SUMMARY
 Part 1

Overview of Nanotechnology
 Overview of Nanotechnology

What is Nanotechnology?

Nanotechnology is the creation of:

USEFUL/FUNCTIONAL materials, devices and systems

through control of matter on the nanometer length (nm)
scale, and exploitation of novel phenomena and properties
(physical, chemical, biological) at that length scale to satisfy
human needs.
 The Perception of Length Scale
- The nanometer (nm)

Human
Typical electron DNA < 3 nm hair:10-4 m
radius: 2.8x10-15 m Protein: 2-5 nm

atto femto pico Nano** Micro* milli

Length (m)
0 10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3
(nm) (µm)
Virus: 10-7 m

Hydrogen atom: 0.1 nm, or one angstrom

*1 µm = 10-6 m ≈ one-tenth of human hair

** 1 nm = 10-9 m ≈ span of 10 shoulder-to
-shoulder H2 atoms
Why nanotechnology?
All matter that exist in universe are made of atoms or molecules.

The way atoms or molecules of various shapes and surface features

organize into patterns on nanoscales determines important material
properties, e.g. properties in: electrical and thermal conductivity,
optical properties, mechanical strength.

Specifically, two factors can determine the properties of matter:

● The atomic structures (e.g., No. of electrons, as in the periodic table)
Example: Change electric resistivity of silicon by doping.
● The arrangement of atoms (e.g., molecular structures, like polymers)

Additionally, the size of substances in nanoscale can alter their

characterizations in: chemical reactivities, optical reflectivity (e.g., colors),
diffusivities, buoyancy, solubility, etc.)

If only we can manipulate the atomic structures and control the

arrangement of the atoms in matter, can we then create materials with
desirable material properties characterization – e.g., materials with super
strength, super electric and thermal conductivities, healthy genomes and
biochemical substances in health care, super chemical reactions in drug
discovery and productions, etc.
 Active R&D in Nanotechnology:
inspired by Richard Feynman’s speech in 1959

(1918 - 1988)
A visionary and a Nobel Laureate in Physics, 1965

Feynman, R., “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom: An invitation to

enter a new field of physics,” (miniaturization) first presented at the American
Physical Society at California Institute of Technology on December 29, 1959.
Subsequent publication in ‘Engineering and Science’, Caltech, February 1960.
Quotations from of Richard Feynman’s Speech:
Feynman’s vision on a new field of research:
“ A field, in which little has been done, but in which an enormous amount
can be done in principle.”

“This field is Miniaturization.”

Feynman’s view on “The marvelous biological systems”:

“In the tiniest cell, all information for the organization of a complex creature
such as ourselves can be stored.

All this information - whether we have brown eyes, or whether we think at all,
or that in the embryo the jawbone should first develop with a little hole in the
side so that later a nerve can grow through it -
- all this information is contained in a very tiny fraction of the cell in the form of
long-chain DNA molecules in which approximately 50 atoms are used for one
bit of information about the cell ”
Quotations from Richard Feynman’s Speech (Cont’d):

Feynman’s view on “The marvelous biological systems”- Cont’d:

“Biology is not simply writing information; it is doing something about it.”

“ Many of the cells are very tiny, but they are active; they manufacture
various substances; they walk around; they wiggle; and they do all kinds
of marvelous things - all on a very small scale. Also they store information.

Consider the possibility that we too can make a thing very small which does
what we want - that we can manufacture an object that maneuvers at that
level! ”

Feynman’s vision on “Nanotechnology”:

“ So, ultimately, when our computer get faster and faster and more and more
elaborate, we will have to make them smaller and smaller.

But there is plenty of room to make them smaller.

There is nothing that I can see in the physical laws that say the computer
elements cannot be made enormously smaller than they are now ”
 The Very First Human-Made Nanostructure -
The “Buckyball”
Created in 1985 by a chemistry professor,
Richard Smalley from Rice University -
a Nobel Laureate in 1996.

It contained 60 carbon atoms in the shape of a soccer ball with a

diameter of 0.7 nanometer.

Made from the Buckminsterfullerene - a third form of pure

carbon molecule.
(after the name of a futurist, R. Buckminster Fuller)
 Comparison of Micro- and Nanoscale Technologies

Nanotechnology is NOT a natural outgrowth of MEMS technology!!

Microsystems (MST) Technology Nanotechnology

Top-down approach Bottom-up approach
Miniaturization with micrometer and sub- Miniaturization with atomic accuracy
micrometer tolerances
Builds on solid-state physics Builds on quantum physics and quantum
mechanics, e.g. molecular solid and gas
dynamics, heat transfer
Evolved from IC fabrication technology Undefined
Established techniques for producing Far from being developed
electromechanical functions
Established fabrication techniques Fabrication techniques are in experimental
stage
Established manufacturing techniques Limited to manipulation of atoms only
Proven devices and engineering systems in Only a few staionary machine components of
marketplace simple geometry are produced
Success in commercialization of a few products A long way to go
 Major Impacts of Nanotechnology
(source: Meyya Meyyappan, NASA Ames)

• Electronics, Computing
and Data Storage
• Materials and Manufacturing
• Health and Medicine
• Energy and Environment
• Transportation
Nanotechnology is an • National Security
enabling technology
• Space exploration
•
•
 Nanotechnology Benefits in Electronics and Computing
(source: Meyya Meyyappan, NASA Ames)

• Processors using molecular electronics with declining energy use and cost per
gate, thus increasing efficiency of computer by 106.
• Small mass storage devices: multi-tera (1012) bit levels.

• Integrated nanosensors: collecting,

processing and communicating
massive amounts of data with minimal
size, weight, and power consumption.

• Higher transmission frequencies and

more efficient utilization of
optical spectrum to provide at
least 10 times the bandwidth now.

• Display technologies, e.g., TFT.

• Quantum computing, e.g.,

spinning single electron transistor. Heat = Horrendous challenge!!
 Nanotechnology Benefits in
Electronics and Computing-Cont’d
The Nanochip
Advantages: (1) Low unit cost. (2) Narrow gates for faster on-off

boost speed limit of the integrated circuits

Gates

Nano transistors

SiO2 film

Silicon substrate
(thin pure silicon film)
 Nanotechnology Benefits in
Electronics and Computing-Cont’d
Intel roadmap on nano transistors
using microtechnology:

Silicon-based Possible materials?

90 nm µ-technology Nanotechnology?
(Likely technology)
65 Equivalent to
2000 wires
Length: 50 nm 45 bundled in a
Transistor Size

Gate oxide: 1.2 nm human hair!

L = 30
32
Incre L = 20
ase L Gate oxide: 0.3 nm 22 Single-
e akage
- Anoth L = 15 Electron
er majo Transistor
r cha L = 10
lleng
e !
2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 ? Year
Nanotechnology Benefits in Data Storage-1
The ever-increasing demand for high density information storage:

10,000 Mbits/in2

2007
 Nanotechnology Benefits in Data Storage-2

Data Storage Requirements:

● Density ● Data rate

● Error rate ● Overall reliability

● Re-writability ● Data retention

● Tracking ● Cost

Source: “Scanning Probes Microscope & Their Potential for Data Storage,” John Mamin,
IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, CA. (Private communication)
 Health and Medicine
Medical testing, diagnosis; Drug discovery and delivery

• Expanding ability to characterize genetic makeup will

revolutionize the specificity of diagnostics and
therapeutics
- Nanodevices can make gene sequencing more
efficient.

• Effective and less expensive health care using remote

and in-vivo devices.

• New formulations and routes for drug

delivery, optimal drug usage.

• More durable, rejection-resistant artificial

tissues and organs.
Nanotube-based
biosensor for
cancer diagnostics • Sensors for early detection and prevention.

(Source: Meyya Meyya[[an, NASA Ames)

 Materials and Manufacturing

• Ability to synthesize nanoscale building blocks with control on

size, composition etc. further assembling into larger
structures with designed properties will revolutionize materials
manufacturing:
- Manufacturing metals, ceramics, polymers,
etc. at exact shapes without machining.
- Lighter, stronger and programmable
materials.
- Lower failure rates and reduced
life-cycle costs.
- Bio-inspired materials.
- Multifunctional, adaptive materials.
- Self-healing materials.
(Source: Meyya Meyya[[an, NASA Ames)
 Energy and Environment
(Source: Meyya Meyya[[an, NASA Ames)

• Energy Production
- Clean, less expensive sources enabled by
novel nanomaterials and processes.
• Energy Utilization
- High efficiency and durable home and
industrial lighting.
- Solid state lighting can reduce total
electricity consumption by
10% and cut carbon emission
by the equivalent of 28 million tons/year.
(Source: Al Romig, Sandia Lab)

• Materials of construction, such as paints, sensing changing

conditions, e.g., ambient air temperature, and in response,
altering their inner structure for optimal property in thermal conductivity.
• Thermal barrier and wear resistant coatings.

• High strength, light weight composites for increasing fuel

efficiency.

• High temperature sensors for ‘under the hood’.

• Improved displays.

• Battery technology.

• Wear-resistant tires.

• Automated highways. (Source: Meyya Meyyappan, NASA Ames)

 Part 2

Overview of Nanofabrication Techniques

 General Principle of Nanofabrication

Step 1 Isolation of atoms or molecules:

Laser source Light detector

1. Mechanical Means- e.g. by Scanning of AFM probe

Atomic Force Microscope
(AFM):
Repulsive Force

Scanning probe

2. Electromechanical Means – V
e.g. by using scanning
tunneling microscope: Fine metal Narrow gap, d
needle tip

3. High energy physical chemical means: -

plasma sputtering (Evaporation) or CVD.
 General Principle of Nanofabrication –Cont’d

Step 2 Assembly of loose atoms or molecules:

● Mechanical means by using special equipment, e.g. AFM-guided

nanomachining system (AGN), or by special controlled environment.
● Assembled loose gold atoms using STM at IBM:

Final assembled
atoms in ”IBM”

● Biochemical means for self assembler and replication.

 General Principle of Nanofabrication-Cont’d

Step 3 Re-bonding free atoms and molecules (Synthesis):

● Mechanical synthesis, e.g. vaporizing free

atoms at high temperature in high vacuum,
followed by condensations.

(Synthesized Chinese words of “atom”

made by atoms)

● Chemical synthesis by diffusion + chemical

reactions, e.g. special CVD.

● Biochemical synthesis, such as the “natural

molecular machines” for “growing” proteins,
enzymes and antibodies.

● There are other methods for producing nanoscale products,

e.g. “epitaxial” growth for nanoparticles and nanowires.
 Self Assemblers of Nanoscaled Products
Using Biochemistry
● Current R&D activities in self assemblers appear to be on Synthetic
processes based chemistry and biochemistry.

● One promising approach is the self repetition and assembly of atoms

and molecules such as in the case of biological cells.

● This concept involves the proper assembly of nucleotides in DNA

comprise particular genes leading to the production of cellular
proteins.

● Many of these proteins are responsible for cellular replication and

division.

● Success in the synthesis of these biochemical processes may lead to

the self repetition and assembly of atoms or molecules of other
substances with industrial applications.
 Part 3

Prevalent Nanoscale Products

and Applications
 Nanoproducts and Market Prospects
● Prevalent nano scale products are limited to the basic
rudimentary types of:
● Nanodots (Quantum dots or Nanoparticles)
For smart coatings and paints, cosmetic products, etc.

● Nanowires
For gates and switches in molecular electronics, sensors, smart
composites, fabrics, etc.

● Nanotubes
For structure supports, nano switches, nanofluidics, etc.

● Markets and Projected Revenues for Nanotechnology:

$50 million in Year 2001
$26.5 billion in Year 2003
(if include products involving parts produced by nanotechnology)

$1 trillion by Year 2015 (US National Science Foundation)

An enormous opportunity for manufacturing industry!!
 Applications:
Used as conducting circuitry wires, and as
the gates nanoscale transistors.

Electrical conductivity is usually smaller

than bulk material. They can be controlled
by surface conditions and doping.

“Epitaxial casting” – An alternative fabrication method

Pure crystal zinc oxide nano wires 1-50 nm in diameter, that grow vertically in aligned arrays
from sapphire wafer. The length of these wires are in the range of 2 to 10 µm In length
(Peidong Yang, Berkeley Lab, 2003).
 Carbon Nano Tubes (CNT)
(Source: Meyya Meyyappan, NASA Ames)
)

CNT is a tubular form of carbon with diameter as small as

1 nm with a few nm to micrometers in length.

CNT is configurationally equivalent to a two dimensional

graphene sheet rolled into a tube.

Courtesy of Peidong Yang, UC-Berkeley

CNT exhibits extraordinary mechanical

properties: Young’s modulus over
1 Tera Pascal, as stiff as diamond, and tensile
strength ~ 200 GPa.

CNT can be metallic or semiconducting,

depending on chirality.
• The strongest and most flexible molecular
material because of C-C covalent bonding
and seamless hexagonal network architecture

• Young’s modulus of over 1 TPa vs 70 GPa for

Aluminum, 700 GPA for C-fiber
- strength to weight ratio 500 time > for Al;
similar improvements over steel and
titanium; one order of magnitude
improvement over graphite/epoxy

• Maximum strain ~10% much higher than any

material

• Thermal conductivity ~ 3000 W/mK in the axial

direction with small values in the radial direction

(source: Meyya Meyyappan, NASA Ames)

• High strength composites.
• Cables, tethers, beams.
• Multifunctional materials.
• Functionalize and use as polymer back bone
- plastics with enhanced properties like “blow
molded steel”.
• Heat exchangers, radiators, thermal barriers, cryotanks.
• Radiation shielding.
• Filter membranes, supports.
• Body armor, space suits. (Source: Meyya Meyyappan, NASA Ames)
Challenges
- Control of properties, characterization
- Dispersion of CNT homogeneously in host materials
- Large scale production
- Application development
• CNT based microscopy: AFM, STM… Challenges
• Nanotube sensors: force, pressure, chemical…
• Controlled growth
• Biosensors • Functionalization with
probe molecules, robustness
• Molecular gears, motors, actuators • Integration, signal processing
• Fabrication techniques
• Batteries, Fuel Cells: H2, Li storage
• Nanoscale reactors, ion channels
• Biomedical
- in vivo real time crew health monitoring
- Lab on a chip
- Drug delivery
- DNA sequencing
- Artificial muscles, bone replacement,
bionic eye, ear...
(Source: Meyya Meyyappan, NASA Ames)
 Gallium Nitride Nanotubes
Developed by a group lead by Dr. Peidong Yang at Berkeley
Laboratory in 2003.

Tube diameters: 30 – 200 nm

Thickness of tubes: 5 - 50 nm

Unique characteristics:

Single crystal, transparent, electronically

and optically active.

Principal application areas:

Chemical sensors, nanofluidics including Courtesy of Peidong Yang (UC-Berkeley)

Nanoelectropheresis.
 Applications of Prevalent Nano Products

The unlimited application of nanotechnology is primarily based on

the fact that fundamental properties of materials change with the:

● Size
● Shape
● Composition

that are not observed in any of their corresponding bulk materials

The unique size-dependent properties and characterizations

of nanoproducts offer many opportunities for new applications
 Size-dependent Properties and
Characterization of Materials
● Mechancial strength (e.g., Max. tensile strength, Young’s modulus, etc.

● Electrical properties (e.g., electrical reisitivity)

● Chemical properties (e.g., reactivity to chemical reaction-critical in drug

discovery and production)

● Optical properties (e.g., reactivities to light - nano bar-coding) )

● Thermophysical properties (e.g., thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity,

coefficient of thermal expansion)

● Melting point and solubility

● Catalytic properties (e.g., ability to enhance chemical reactions-critical

drug discovery and production)

● Viscosity for liquids and surface tension (important for drug discovery
and production)
Biomedicine using Nanoparticles:

● They are extremely sensitive to biological materials - Sensitive disease detectors,

e.g., early diagnosis of Alzheimer disease – (diagnosis).

● Used as carriers coated with nanosensors, which could recognize diseased tissues
and attach to them, releasing a drug exactly where is needed – (delivery).

● Enter damaged cells and release enzymes that tell the cells to auto-destruct, or could
release enzymes to try to repair the cell and return it to normal functioning-(delivery).

● Change color with sizes, can be traced to delivery drug in treating cancerous diseases
not to those healthy ones in the surrounding. They are ideal candidates for acting as
biological markers, or bio-barcode, for detecting early stage of major diseases –
(diagnosis and drug delivery).

● They can detect various biomarkers comprising nucleic acids or proteins at exceptionally
low numbers. It is vital to the practice of diagnostic medicine for neurodegenerative disease,
and infection by a virus, and DNA sequencing for dignosing many other diseases – (diagnosis)

● The extremely high surface area to volume ratio also makes them much easier in diffusion
process – an critical process in drug manufacturing – (drug discovery)
Molecular Electronics with Nanowires and Nanotubes:

● Nanowires are the basic building blocks for nanoscale electric circuits.
They are used in simple switches.

● Nanotubes can be connected in parallel or in junctions. Current passing these

tubes can result in change of electrical properties that can serve as permanent
memory in a nanoscale data storage system

● A nanoscale transistor using electric conductive molecules to connect the gate

and the source and drain. The applied voltage changes the electric properties
of these molecules, and thereby regulates the current flow in the transistor.

● Nanotubes with high thermal conductivity (as high as 3000 W/m-K) at room
temperature can be used as effective dissipate heat generated by Ohmic
heating of nanoscale circuits in molecular electronics.

● The concept of spintronics for Quantum computers has become a reality; It involves
the development of a data storage system based on the “spin” properties of electrons.
Spin can be used as an up-down binary code.
Energy with nanoparticles and nanotubes:

● Fuel cells. Fuel cells provide direct conversion of chemical energy to electric
energy. Nanoparticles with controlled electrochemical properties are used as
catalysts that can enhance the ionization of hydrogen and oxygen in the
respective anode and cathode in the cell.

● Batteries. These are the only available equipment for storing electrical energy.
Nanotechnology allows the design and fabrication of new anodes and cathode
made of nanocarbon tubes. These anodes and cathods are able to substantially
increase the amount and rate of energy that can be transferred to a battery,
and reduce the recharge times significantly.

Another application is to control the crystal structure of lithium used in the popular
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries with improved storage efficiency.

● Solar photovoltaic. Highly conductive nanowires can be used to maximize the

collection of the free electrons generated by the photoelectric conversion with
minimum physical space and maximum solar ray exposure.
Nanofabrication technique can also be used to produce ultra-thin wafers to
minimize the use of expensive silicon wafers.
Environment:

● Nanoparticles can absorb, trap or break down pollutants, make fossil fuels less
polluting and coolant more efficient

● Nanotubes can be used to make sensors to detect the presence of dangerous

gases. For examples, ZnO film emits visible green light when exposed to UV
light. Its grow dims when toxic chemicals such as chlorinated phenols and poly-
chlorinated biophenols pass nearby. The pollutants react with the UV-irradiation
film and decompose into harmless chemicals

● Nanoparticles ca detoxify a wide variety of common contaminants.

● Nanocomposite material can absorb mercury, and release the absorbed mercury
when exposed to heat or vacuum treatment. It is thus an effective tool for recycling
mercury

Other Applications with nanoparticles and nanotubes:

● Special coating materials and paints

● Super-strength structural materials

 Part 4

Nanoscale Engineering Analysis

© T. R. Hsu 2007
 Why Nanoscale Engineering Analysis?

● Any device or engineering system, regardless of its size, is an assembly

of components. Nanoscale engineering systems are no exception.
● Each component is expected to perform a specific function, e.g. structural
support, or as connecting components, or as signal sensing, or as actuating
mechanisms.
● Each component must have proper configuration and sufficient physical
strength to carry out the intended function(s).

● Components should sustain externally applied forces, heat, chemical and

biological attacks.
● Reliable techniques must be available to ensure components’ ability to
perform the intended functions and survive in hostile environmental conditions.
● Techniques in design, plus reliable fabrication, packaging, assembly,
and testing for quality and volume production are called nanoscale
engineering.
● Computational nanoscale engineering analysis that ensures the proper
design of these components is thus an essential part of nanoscale
engineering.
Engineering Analyses in Nano-, Micro-, and Macroscale
● For structural components in micro- and macroscale
(i.e., with linear size > 1 µm):
● The laws of physics based on the behavior of “continua”
apply in these scales
● A continuum = Aggregations of a great many atoms or molecules
with no space in between – substance in macroscale

● Behavior of a “continuum” =
Behavior of aggregation of large number of
atoms or molecules

● There are differences in behavior of individual atoms or molecules,

but the aggregation of large number of these atoms and molecules
“average” these differences to give “phenomenological” properties
of the aggregated entity in macroscale
● Hence, the behavior of individual atoms does not affect the overall
behavior of a continuum in macroscale
 Engineering Analyses in Micro- and Macroscale – Cont’d

● Linear theory of elasticity for stress analysis;

● Newton’s 2nd law for rigid-body dynamic analysis;

● Fourier law for heat conduction analysis;

● Newton’s cooling law for heat convection analysis;

● Fick’s law for diffusion analysis;

● Navier-Stokes’s equations for fluid dynamics analysis

● All these analytical formulations are developed on hypotheses of materials

being continua, which is not the case for materials at nanometer scale

● Either significant modifications are required to these existing formulations,

or new formulations are required for nanoscale engineering analyses
 Engineering Analyses in Nanoscale
● For structural components in nanoscale (i.e., with linear size < 1 µm):
● A component at nanoscale contains many fewer atoms or molecules than
those in a continuum
● These atoms or molecules in a nanoscale substance are interconnected
by chemical bonds (simulated by elastic springs):
Elastic bonds
:

≈
Atoms

(a) A solid plane

(b) Aggregated atoms

(c) Elastic bonds of atoms

● Consequently, the behavior of individual atoms plays dominant roles in the
overall behavior of the structure
● Theories derived for continua can no longer be used to model nanoscaled
substance
● Phenomenological models based on quantum physics and quantum
mechanics are used as bases for engineering analyses of components
of nanoscale
 Engineering Analyses in Nanoscale – Cont’d

● Inter-molecular physical-chemical action is another unique aspect

of nanoscale engineering analyses

Typical inter-molecular forces:

Attraction force
Elastic bonds
:

Molecular distance in
neutral equilibrium state

Atoms
do

Inter-molecular distance,d

Repulsion force
(c) Elastic bonds of atoms

● Because the way molecules of various shapes and surface features

organize into patterns on nanoscales, and thus the size of the local
atomic aggregations,
● Size-dependent material properties must be incorporated in nanoscale
engineering analysis.
 Size-dependent Properties of Nanoscale Materials
□ Mechanical strength, e.g., in maximum tensile strength and Young’s modulus.

□ Electrical properties, e.g., electrical resistivity.

□ Chemical properties, e.g., reactivity to chemical reactions.

□ Optical properties, e.g., reactivity to light – same material with different

colors depending on its size – a value to drug delivery
and medical diagnosis.

□ Thermophysical properties, e.g., thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity,

and coefficient of thermal expansion.

□ Melting points and solubility.

□ Magnetic properties.

□ Catalytic properties, e.g., ability to enhance chemical reactions

- a vital value to drug discovery processes.

□ Viscosity for liquid and surface tension.

 Computational Nanoscale Engineering Analysis

Computational nano-engineering technology aims at the development

of nanometer scale modeling and simulation methods to enable the
design and construction of realistic nanometer scale devices and
systems.

Computational nanoscale engineering design encompasses:

● Stress Analysis

● Molecular Dynamics

● Molecular Heat Transmission

● Molecular Gas Dynamics

 Stress Analysis of Solids in Nanoscale
Young’s Modulus of Silicon:
Miller index for Young’s modulus of Young’s modulus of % Change
orientation bulk material nanocantilever at 3 nm thick
<100> 129.5 75 42.1

<110> 168.0 110 34.5

<111> 186.5 130 30.3

Unit: GPa

Significant size-dependent Young’s modulus of nanoscale materials has

invalidated the linear generalized Hooke’s law:

{σ } = [C (E ,υ )]{ε }
in which {σ} = stress tensor, {ε} = strain tensor, [C (E ,υ )] = the elasticity matrix
with E = Young’s modulus and ν = Poisson’s ratio.

Significant modifications of the constitutive relations of materials at this

scale because the values of both E and ν vary with the size of the structure
Modifications for finite element analysis of nanoscale solids:
The constitutive equations for incremental stress and strain components
for a conventional elastoplastic stress analysis of solids with temperature
and strain rate-dependent properties:
(“The Finite Element Method for Thermomechanics,” T.R. Hsu, 1986)
*

{dσ } = [Cep ]{dε } − [Cep ]( { } { } ) ⎛ ∂F ∂F ⎞

−
1
{α }dT + D dT + D dε& − [Ce ]{σ
T ε&
}⎜ dT + dε& ⎟
S ⎝ ∂T ∂ε& ⎠
⎧ − ⎫⎧ − ⎫ ⎧ − ⎫ ⎧ − ⎫
where S = 6⎨ * ⎬⎨ * ⎬C (T , ε& ) + 6⎨ * ⎬[Ce ]⎨ * ⎬
⎩
σ ⎭⎩σ ⎭ ⎩
σ ⎭ ⎩σ ⎭
[Ce] = elasticity matrix; [Cep] = elastic-plasticity matrix; {DT} and
[Ce} = respective temperature-dependent and strain rate-dependent elasticity matrix.
α = coefficient of thermal expansion; F = plastic yield function; T = temperature

{D } and {D } = respective coefficient matrices relating to the strain rate and temperature T
ε&
−
T

σ * = translated deviatoric stress following von-Mises plastic potential function

Significant modifications on the above constitutive equations are required
to accommodate size-dependant material properties and the inter-molecular
mechanistic behavior.
● Commercial Finite element analysis codes developed for macroscale solids/fluids
are no longer applicable for those in nanoscale without proper modifications in
theoretical formulations.
 Overview of
Molecular Dynamics
● Deformation of any matter, whether it is solid or fluid, result in movement
of atoms or molecules within the matter.

Atoms with elastic bonds:

Displacement
vector

(a) Initial equilibrium position

(b) Position at time t1 (c) Position at time t2

Oscillatory motions of an atom subject to external disturbance

● At molecular level, i.e. nanoscale, such movement of atoms or molecules

may contribute significantly to the overall physical consequences.
● One thus needs to treat EVERY problem in nanoscale as a TRANSIENT
problem. The name “static mechanics” does not exist in nano-mechanics.

● Every mechanics analysis is thus related to Molecular Dynamics.

 Principle of Molecular Dynamic Simulation

• It computes the MOTION of individual molecules in solids, liquids and gases.

• Motion of molecules includes: position, velocities and orientations with time

(trajectories)

• All molecules are subject to inter-molecular force field and thus the potential energy
that includes: static force, kinetic energy, electromagnetic, thermal, etc.

Simulation methods covers the spectrum of:

Stochastic Deterministic

Metropolis Brownian Molecular

Monte Carlo dynamics dynamics
Force-biased General
Monte Carlo Langevin
dynamics
 Molecular Dynamics in
Engineering Design of Nanoscale Structures
It determines:
(1) The required forces (or energy) to move single atoms (or molecules) in a
molecular force field.
Atoms with elastic bonds:

Displacement
vector

(a) Initial equilibrium position

(b) Position at time t1 (c) Position at time t2

(2) The motion of individual atoms (or molecules):

Trajectories (Positions, Velocities and Orientations) when subject to external
force field.

(3) The Schrodinger’s equation (1926) is used as the basic governing equation
for the ”deterministic” molecular dynamics.
Principle-molecular dynamics.Nanotechnology-3)HSU.4/14/01
 The Schrodinger Equation
for Nonrelativistic Quantum Mechanics (1926)
r
The position of a charged particle, φ ( r , t ) in a force field
of N-charged particles with masses, m0, m1, m2,…, mN-1
can be obtained from the following equation:
r r
h 1 ∂ φ (r , t )
2 2
r r ∂φ (r , t )
− ∑ + U (r , t )φ (r , t ) = ih
2 j mj ∂r j 2
∂t
r
where r = position vector, or the coordinates
r
U (r , t ) = potential energy function
h = the Planck constant = 6.626076 x 10-34 J-s
i= −1
The inter-molecular force on molecule i caused by N-1 other molecules is:
r
r ∂ φ (r , t )
Fi = − r
∂r
 Molecular Dynamics
Inter-Molecular Forces with Separation:

Attraction force
d

do

Inter-molecu lar distance,d

Repulsion force

(Inter-molecular forces.NEMS-1)HSU.4/5/01
 Potential Energy Function in Schrodinger Equation

r fo rces
ecul a
-m ol Molecule j
Inter
Molecule i

r qi q j
U (r ) = ∑
i < j 4π ε 0 d ij

where
qi, qj = respective charge intensities of Particle i and j
dij = distance between Particle i and j
εo = permittivity of the free space.

(Potential energy function.Nanotechnology-3)HSU.4/14/01

Elements of Molecular Dynamic Simulation
Principal Modules:
• Equation of Motion
• Environmental Interactions
• Molecular Interactions

Sub-modules:
• Dynamic equilibrium with applied forces
and energies
• Dynamic and static properties
• Molecular trajectories
(soft or hard sphere collision)
• Phase-space trajectories for vibrating molecules
• Distribution functions of sample molecules in
2-D and 3-D (velocities, properties, etc.)
• Periodic boundary conditions
 Overview of
Molecular Heat Transmission
in nanoscale
Any input of thermal energy to a substance from an external source can cause
a disturbance to the energy equilibrium in its natural state.

Input thermal
energy

(a) Initial state (b) Lattice movement at time t1 (c) Lattice movement at time t2

This input energy can cause the LATTICES that connect atoms to deform
(extend or contract) depending on the form of the input energy.

Because lattices are considered as elastic bonds, any extension or contraction

of any lattice will result in a series of vibrations of lattices.
Vibration of lattices are always associated with energy.

The energy associated with local lattice vibration is called “ENERGY CARRIER”
 Molecular Heat Transmission
A. Energy Carrier:
Heat conduction in solids requires carriers.
Heat transportation in solids of in sub-micrometeer and nanoscales
is predominantly done by the “flow” of phonons.

There are collisions and scattering of free-phonons take place at

all times during heat transmission:

z
The average “mean free path” (MFP):
Plane
B
d1 + d 2 + d 3
P2
λ=
P1 d 1
d P4 3
(t2) 2
Thin
(t1) P3 d 3
(t4)
f
thickn ilm
ess, H The average “mean free time” (MFT):
(t3)
(t 2 − t1) + (t 3 − t 2 ) + (t 4 − t 3) = t 4 − t1
Plan
eA
y τ=
3 3
x
 Molecular Heat Transmission – Cont’d
(For solid size, H < 7λ)

B. Size-dependent Thermophysical Properties

1
The thermal conductivity, k = CVλ
3
Parameters for Thermal Conductivity of Thin Films
[Flik et.al. 1992 and Tien and Chen 1994]

Materials Dielectric and

semiconductors
Specific heats, C Specific heat of electrons, Ce Specific heat of phonons, C s
Molecular velocity, V Electron Fermi velocity, Velocity of phonons (sound
6 3
V e ≅ 1.4x10 m/sec velocity), V s ≅ 10 m/sec
-8
Average mean free Electron mean free path, λe ≅ 10 m Phonon mean free path,
-7
path, λ λs ≅ from 10 m and up

Example: With an average value of λ = 10-7 m for phonons, the k for 200 nm thick
silicon film is only 83% of the same property of silicon in macroscale.
 Molecular Heat Transmission –Cont’d

C. Modified Heat Conduction Equation

The heat conduction equation carries additional term for

energy carrier’s movement:
r r
r Q 1 ∂T (r , t ) τ ∂ 2 T (r , t )
∇ T (r , t ) +
2 = +
k α ∂t α ∂ t2
where the “relaxation time, τ is:
λ
τ=
V
in which V is the average velocity of the heat carrier.

The value of τ ≈ 10-10 seconds is used for semiconducting

materials.
 Overview of Molecular Gas Dynamics

● Gas dynamics derived from continuum theory breaks down at

scale less than 1 µm (or < 1000 nm).

• Molecular physics governs.

• Gas flow in this scale is “rarefied”.

“Mean free path” (MFP) and “Mean free time” (MFT) dominate
in energy transportation.

Knudson number (Kn) and Mach number (Ma) characterize the

flow.

• Kn = MFP (λ)/Characteristic length ( L); λ ≈ 65 nm

Ma = Speed of sound in the rarefied gas/
Speed of sound at standard conditions (Ma < 0.3)
 Modeling of Molecular Gas Dynamics
• Kn = MFP (λ)/Characteristic length ( L); λ ≈ 65 nm for most gases
Ma = Speed of sound in the rarefied gas/Speed of sound at standard
conditions

Gas Flow L

Navier-Stoke Equation
Non-slip Slip
boundaries boundaries
Kn
0 0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Continuum Continuum Transition Free
theories theories with molecular flow
slip boundaries

● Modified Navier-Stokes equation can be used for 0.01 < Kn < 0.13.
● New gas dynamics theory and formulations need to be developed for nano scale
gas flow with Kn > 0.13.
 Summary on Nanoscale Engineering Analysis

● R&D on computational nanoscale engineering so far has been

sporadic and has not received support as it deserves.
● It is a matter of time that industry (and thus the government funding
agencies) will recognize its essential value in the design of nano-
scale devices and nano-microscale systems.
● Computational nanoscale engineering presents enormous
challenge to researchers due to the extreme complexity in the
bridging the quantum and continuum mechanics.

● Because of this extreme complexity, Computer

the following inter-play relationship Simulation
will play a major role in the overall
development of nanoscale
engineering design.
Theory Experiment
 Part 5

Measurements of Selected Nanoscale

Material Properties
We have learned a unique feature of nanotechnology
- the properties of nanoscaled substance change with its sizes

● Take for example, the color of silver nanoparticles begins with a light pink color
at the size of 120 nm. It turns to light blue at 80 nm, and dark blue at 40 nm

Gold nanoparticles change color from orange at 100 nm to olive green at 50 nm

● Significant change of thermophysical properties of substances with sizes at

nanoscale as presented before

● Measurement of material properties at nanoscale is extremely difficult because

of the minute size of the samples, coupled by the accuracy of the
measurement instruments

● We will illustrate one particular kind of property measurement –

the thermal conductivity (k) of semiconductors and insulators
 Principle of k- Measurements

● Thermal conductivity of solids k is usually determined

by measuring the temperature gradient produced by a
steady flow of heat in a one-dimensional geometry

● Reliable and accurate measurements of k rely on the

one-dimensional heat flow
 Theoretical Background

Heat conduction in solids is governed by

Fourier law of heat conduction:
∂T ( x, y, z )
q x = − kA
∂x
where qx = heat conduction rate, BTU/h, or Watt
A = area through which the heat is transferred, ft2 or m2
k = thermal conductivity of the material, BTU/h-ft-oF or W/m-oC
∂T
= Temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow, oF/ft or oC/m
∂x
Measurement of k may be conducted on a flat slab:

re a
q ∆x
A k =
A = q =heat flux A(T1 − T2 )
T1 T2
where T1 and T2 are temperature of the
rear and front surfaces respectively

∆x = thickness
 Measurement of k of Conductors, e.g. Metals in Macroscale

Heat Source
Thermocouples ► Two metal rod samples:
∆TA LA A

Insulator
► q Sample A with known kA
► Sample B with KB to be determined.
∆TB LB
B
►
Heat Sink
k A AA ∆TA k B AB ∆TB
From Fourier law of heat conduction: q= =
LA LB
where AA = AB = cross-section of the Sample A and B.
LA = LB = the distances between thermocouples in
Sample A and B
∆TA, ∆TB = measured temperature differences in
Sample A and B respectively.
Hence the thermal conductivity of Sample B is determined by:
∆TA
kB = kA
∆TB
 Measurement of k of Semiconductors and Insulators

These materials typically have low aspect ratios and low k-value.
Maintaining one-dimensional flow of heat in the samples is a major issue

Measurement set-up requires strict control of temperatures in both heat source

(guard hot plate) Th and heat sink Tc

One-dimensional heat flow is ensured by the difference of Th and Tc

Heat Sink, Tc
Cooled Plate
Sample q D = thin thickness of wafers
Guard Heater
Heat Source, Th q
Sample d
Cooled Plate
Heat Sink, Tc
d
The thermal conductivity of the samples k = q
A(Th − Tc )
where A = cross-sectional area for heat flow; q = heat output of the heater
 Measurement of k of Semiconductors or Insulators
in Sub-micrometer and Nanometer Scale

Major issues

● These materials have low k-values. Consequently, require

high precision measurement techniques with high resolutions
● Samples are normally thin and small in size. Proper positioning
and stationing in the fixture are difficult

● Being thin in sample size (e.g. silicon wafers), it is not possible

to ensuring one-dimensional heat flow

● The temperature gradient along the sample thickness is too

small to be measurable

● There is no place for thermocouples in the samples

 Two Principal Techniques for Measurements of
k in Thin Films of Semiconductors and Insulators

● The 3 – Omega Method

● Scanning Thermal Microscope

 The 3-Omega Method for Semiconductors
and Dielectric Materials
Theoretical basis of 3-Omega method [Cahill 1990]:
Temperature distribution of a semi-infinite solid induced by a finite line
heat source [Carslaw and Jaeger 1959]
The temperature rise at point P inside
x the half-volume is:
1 ⎛ P⎞
Periodical line heat
∆T (r ) = ⎜ ⎟ K o (qr )
source @ ω freq. πk ⎝ L ⎠
(e.g. ac power supply) where P = the amplitude of the power
r = x2 + y2
generated at a angular frequency
ω in the line source.
p(x,y) L = length of the line heat source
y k = thermal conductivity of the solid
Ko(r) = Modified Bessel function of
second kind at zeroth order
1 α
=
q i 2ω = wavelength of the diffusive thermal wave
with α to be the diffusivity of the solid
The thermal conductivity k may be calculated from the measured
temperature rise as shown above
 The 3-Omega Method –
Experimental Set-up

Metal line materials:

Au, Ag, Pt, etc.
Thin film sample
Substrate

Metal line by photolithography: Metal line by evaporation:

I+ I+ V+

V+
L~5 mm

2b L
2b~ 50 µm ac current
V
I(t) =PSin(ωt)
V-
I- V-
I-
● Supply current I ~ 1ω ● Temperature rise T ~ I2 ~ 2ω
● Resistance in metal line R ~ T ~ 2ω
● Measured voltage output V ~ IR ~ 3ω
 The 3-Omega Method
k-Measurements

L
Supply ac current I ~ 1ω Measured Voltage change V ~ 3ω

Thin Film
Substrate

2ω ~ Temperature rise ∆T with calibration

2ω ~ Resistance change ∆R with calibration

The thermal conductivity of the thin film is:

⎛ ω2 ⎞
V ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3

⎝ ω1 ⎠ ∆R (↔ 2ω )
k =
4πLR 2 (V3,1 − V3, 2 ) ∆T (↔ 2ω )
ω1, ω2 = Measurements with two angular frequencies of supply current
R = resistance in the line heat source
V = voltage across metal line at ω
V3,1 and V3,2 = measured voltages across the heater @ 3ω
with ω1 and ω2 power supplies respectively
Thermal Microscopy of Micro- and Nanodevices

Techniques Spatial Resolution

Infrared thermometry 1-10 µm

Laser Surface Reflectance 1 µm

Raman Spectroscopy 1 µm

Liquid Crystals 1 µm

Near-Field Optical Thermometry < 1 µm

Scanning Thermal Microscopy < 100 nm (= 0.1 µm)

 Scanning Thermal Microscope

● For measuring k for thin films in the thickness range of 10 nm

to 10 µm

● The method is based on heated tip that scan across the surface of
the sample

● The heat flowing into sample is correlated to local thermal

conductivity of the sample

● Modified version of scanning thermal microscope –

called thermoreflectance thermometry can measure k of thin films
in both normal and lateral directions

● Atomic force microscope (AFM), laser beam, photo- and thermal

sensors are major components in this type of measurement
systems
 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
●The AFM consists of a microscale
cantilever with a sharp tip (probe)

● Its end is used to scan the specimen

surface

● The cantilever is typically silicon or silicon nitride

with a tip radius of curvature on the order of
nanometers

● When the tip is brought into proximity of a sample

surface, forces between the tip and the sample
lead to a deflection of the cantilever by Hooke’s law

● Depending on the situation, forces that are Mirror

measured in AFM include:
● mechanical contact force
● Van der Waals forces, capillary forces
● chemical bonding, electrostatic forces For linear translation
● magnetic forces,etc of sample in x-, y- and
Z-direction

● Typically, the deflection is measured using a

laser spot reflected from the top of the cantilever
into an array of photodiodes
 Major Components of Scanning Thermal Microscope

AFM + Thermal Probe

er
Las
Can
tilev Deflection
er
Sensing
Temperature Heated
Sensor Tip Sample surface topography
µ-resistive tip (exaggerated)
T(x) Sample Z
X-Y-Z
x
Actuator
x
T(y)
In theory, kz may be measured by heat flow in z-direction
whereas kx and ky may be measured by mapping the
y Temperature T(x) and T(y).
 Measurement of k of Thin Film Using 3-Omega Method
and Scanning Thermal Microscope
Fiege, G.B.M, Altes, A., Heiderhoff and Balk, L.J. “Quantative thermal Conductivity
Measurements with Nano Resolution,” J. Physics D: Applied Physics, vol. 32, No. 5, 1999.

(75 µm dia)
AFM made of wires
(Heater and thermometer)
Periodic heating: I(t) = IoSinωt
for 3-ω k-measurements. 200
µm
long
The scanning thermal microscope
for in-plane k-measurements. (wire dia: 5 µm)
Summary on Thermal Conductivity Measurements of Thin Films
● Thermal conductivity is an important material characteristic in micro and nanoscale
device design
● Heat transmission in matter rely on the traveling of energy carriers, such as
phonons, electrons and photons
● The ability of conducting heat by matter, i.e. thermal conductivity, depends on
how free these energy carriers can travel in the matter

● Thermal conductivity of matter k, depends on the size of the matter:

k
keff

Thin film Thickness, t

≈ 7λ (λ = MFP)

● Measurements of k for thin films presents a major challenge to engineers

● Two principal methods for measuring k of thin films are:

● The 3-Omega method using periodic line heat source, and
● Scanning thermal microscope using scanning AFM with heated contact tips
● Combined 3-Omega method and scanning thermal microscopy was used to measure
the k-values of thin films of 30 nm thick in both normal and lateral directions
 Part 6
Challenges in Nanoscale Engineering
● Nanotechnology has, and will bring to humankind enormous benefits
and wealth.

● The potentials and possibilities of what this technology can do to us

appear limitless.

● However, many of these unthinkable possibilities could bring to human

much unprecedented and irreversible negative socio-ethical consequences
to human civilization

● While no one can stop the rapid advances of this emerging technology in the
New century, it is a colossal challenge to scientists and engineers to only
capitalize the benefits of nanotechnology but reject those that would bring
disaster to our society
 Nano-Patterning for Nanoscaled Devices

● Photolithography has been extensively used in microscale patterning.

● The requirements for line sizes in nanometers and the line definition in the
same scale has exceeded the limits of photolithographic technique due to:
● The availability of adequate light source with sufficiently short
wavelength,
● Free from diffraction of the light beam for clear edge definition.
● New technique in patterning substrates in nanoscale is thus necessary.
● Current development of nano-patterning is termed as “Nano-imprint”:

General Procedures:
1. Nano-patterns in master quartz wafer. 2. Heat up silicon substrate close to melting point.
3. Press quartz wafer into the Si substrate. 4. Indent the “soft” silicon with the nano-patterns.
5. Retract the master quartz wafer.
 Nanoscale Engineering Design

● Lack of materials that can be produced in nanoscale

● There is lack of electro-mechanical convertible materials, such as nanoscale

piezoelectric crystals. This makes NEMS (Nanoelectromechanical systems)
a misleading terminology widely used by researchers

● Lack of available mechanical and thermophysical material properties for

mechanical and structural design

● Size-dependent material properties invalidated most established theories

and physical laws used in design, .e.g., the Hooke’s law, heat conduction
equations, etc.

● Quantum physics and quantum mechanics are the fundamental

phenomenological models available for describing molecular behavior,
which is basically statistical of nature – the need to develop stochastic
models for engineering design.

● Much effort is required in R&D of “computational stochastically mechanics”

- the likely tool for engineering design of nanoscale devices
 Nanoscale Engineering-
Production and Manufacturing
There are several issues in transforming NT from scientific discoveries
in the laboratory to commercial production by industry:
● Facility for volume production:

- Self-assembly technology.
- Reel-to-reel fabrication facility.
- Robust tools and processes.
- Low capital and operating costs.
● Production systems e.g. “Flexible process-oriented manufacturing
systems” for nanoscale products of: high volume-low variety; medium
volume-medium variety, or low volume-high variety of high value.

● Reliability and testing techniques and standards.

● Integration of nanoscale structures and devices into micro-, meso-

and macroscale products – packaging and interconnect.
● Production management.
 Part 7

Future Outlook of Nanotechnology

and Negative Social Impacts
Before we look forward to what the ultimate benefits nanotechnology can bring
to humankind, let us look back what are great technological breakthroughs in the
past Century of human civilization:

Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century

As selected by the US Academy of Engineering

1. Electrification* 11. Highways

2. Automobile* 12. Spacecraft*
3. Airplane* 13. Internet
4. Water supply and distribution 14. Imaging
5. Electronics 15. Household appliances*
6. Radio and television 16. Health technologies
7. Agriculture mechanization* 17. Petroleum and petrochemical
technologies
8. Computers 18. Laser and fiber optics
9. Telephone 19. Nuclear technology*
10. Air conditioning and refrigeration* 20. High performance materials

* with significant mechanical engineering involvement

Futuristic Industrial Products in the 21st Century by Nanotechnology
Near-term Products “Dream” Products
• New vaccines and medicines that cure many • “Dust” sized super-intelligent computers.
incurable diseases. • “Needle-tip” sized robots for biomedical
• Synthetic antibody-like nanoscale drugs and applications and for search and rescue.
devices seeking out to destroy malignant cells • Spacecraft weighing less than today’s family
in human or animal bodies. cars.
• In-vivo medical diagnostic and drug delivery
systems. • Biomedicine, e.g. in-vivo systems and
surgery that can sustain human lives to 150
• Smart surface coating materials with self- years and longer.
adjusting thermal conductance for buildings
and refrigeration systems. • Robots with artificial human intelligence
• Smart fabrics for self-cleaning clothe. becoming the mainstream workforce in our
• Super-strong materials for light weight Society.
airplanes, vehicles and structures.
• Unlimited supply of clean renewable
• Clean energy conversion systems and super- energies that replace all fossil fuel produced
long life batteries. energies on the Earth.
• Tele-transportation systems that can
• New breed of crops and domestic animals that transport human anywhere on Earth in
can feed entire world population. seconds.
• Spacecraft for human/cargo inter-planet
traveling.
HSU-2005
 Negative Social Impacts by Nanotechnology

● Nanotechnology could be used to produce devastating products

for humankind:

● Deadly vaccines that create pandemic diseases

● Mass destruction weapons

● Unethical human cloning and duplication

 A VC’s Perception on Timeline for Commercialization of NT
(Steve T. Jurvestson, Managing Director, Draper Fischer Jurvetson, Menlo Park, CA)
♦ Early Revenue (next 5 years)
- Tools for bulk materials (e.g. powders, composites, etc.) fabrications.
- 1-D chemical and biological sensors, e.g. out-of-body medical
sensors and diagnostic.
- Larger MEMS-scale devices.

♦ Medium Term (5 to 10 years)

- 2-D nanoelectronics: memory, displays, solar cells, etc,
- Hierarchically-structured nanomaterials.
- Passive drug delivery & diagnostics, improved implantable
medical devices.

♦ Long Term (10 years and beyond)

- 3-D nanoelectronics.
- Nanomedicine, therapeutics, and artificial chromosomes.
- Quantum computers used in small molecule design.
- Machine-phase manufacturing.
- Something that we cannot predict today.
 SUMMARY

● There has been unprecedented interests (and expectations) expressed by

the scientific community, and colossal amount of investments in R&D by
governments of leading industrialized nations in the world.

● Current state of nanotechnology appears focused on “scientific discovery”

with rudimentary products at laboratory scale.

● Near term breakthroughs in significant commercial applications of

nanotechnology appear in the new superior materials and disruptive
biomedical applications.
● R&D on creative and novel micro/nano scale products that have identified
global market potentials is a sensible direction to follow.

● Nanoscale engineering is a necessary vehicle to reach this goal.

● Related “soft nanotechnology”, e.g. commercialization and global marketing

for nano scale products, and volume production technologies should be
encouraged and supported.
 End of

Chapter 12

Thank You