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INDEX

SR. PARTICULARS PAGE

NO. NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 1-3
1.1 RAINWATER HARVESTING

1.2 ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE OF GROUND WATER TABLE

1.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND RAINWATER HARVESTING

2. HISTORY 4-11
2.1 OBJECTIVES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

2.2 COMPONENTS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

2.2.1 ROOF TOP CATCHMENT

2.2.2 LAND SURFACE CATCHMENT

3. METHODOLOGY (CASE STUDY ) 12-16

3.1 METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.2 METHODOLOGY

3.3 LABORATORY TESTS

3.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

4 AN OVERVIEW OF RWH 17-18

5 RECHARGE STRUCTURES 19-21

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 22

7. REFERENCES 23
 1

INTRODUCTION

Water is one of the natural resources and comes as a free gift like air.
However, It is a basic ingredient of any living beings. According to the
Atharva Veda, a life Is believed to be first evolved and nourished in
water. The Rig Veda says water Has the lifesaving medicinal quality, so
it needs to be conserved. Humans cannot Survive without water as it is
one of their basic needs. In the body of a human Being, around 70% is
water. In addition to that, water is necessary on a daily basis Lifestyle
like drinking, bathing, washing, planting, etc. Water is also required in
Large quantities for different sectors like irrigation, industries,
transportation, And hydroelectricity plants. All great civilizations started
and prospered near Water bodies.(Pradhan and Sahoo.,2019,1a).

World’s population has been constantly increasing and so has the water
demand. However, Supplies from water resources are limited and
estimated to be 2% from the total available Water in nature. The
population growth has direct influence on the water supply demand
Rates. For example, worldwide water demand has increased six folds
between 1990 and 1995 While the population was only doubled and the
demand of the agricultural sector is almost 70% of the total demand [1].
The rate of the growth in the urban area is about four times that Of the
rural areas. Based on this fact, the concept of sustainability must be
considered in Planning and management of the available water
resources. With the development and Growth of urban populations, the
paved and roof area will increase and this situation is ideal For
implementing rainwater harvesting techniques.(

With the explosion of human population, it is becoming very difficult for

providing usable quality of water even with Values. Therefore, many
parts of the world are facing high to extreme water stresses. This
stress is due to scarcity of underground water, mismanagement of
existing Water bodies, increase in river water pollution by allowing
industrial and urban Pollutants to flow into rivers, lack of water
recycling, no clever usage, and wastage Of water.

This is the common scene in most of the cities in the world. In addition
to this, The water bodies are drying out. With this rate, many cities of
India would come To day zero condition like Cape Town in South Africa.
Therefore, there is a need of Smart water management system.

1.1 RAINWATER HARVESTING

Rain Water Harvesting & Conservation, is the activity of direct collection

 2

of Rainwater. The conservation of Rain Water so collected can be

stored for direct use or can be re-charged into the Ground Water. The
main goal is to minimize flow of Rain Water through Drains/ Nallahas to
the Rivers without making any use of the Same. It is a known fact that
the Ground Water level is depleting and going down And down in the
last decades. Thus Rain Water Harvesting & Conservation aims at
Optimum utilization of the natural resource, that is, Rain Water, which is
the first Form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle and hence
is a primary source Of water for us. The Rivers, Lakes and Ground Water
are the secondary sources of Water. In present times, in absence of
Rain Water harvesting and conservation, we Depend entirely on such
secondary sources of water and in the process it is forgotten That rain
is the ultimate source that feeds to these secondary sources. The value
of This important primary source of water must not be lost. Rain Water
Harvesting &Conservation means to understand the value of rain and to
make optimum Use of Rain Water at the place where it falls.

1.2 ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE OF GROUND WATER TABLE

The artificial recharge to ground water is a process by which the ground

water Reservoir is augmented at a rate exceeding that obtained under
natural conditions Of replenishment. Any man made scheme or facility
that adds water to an aquifer May be considered to be an artificial
recharge system. Theoretically this will imply That the vertical hydraulic
conductivity is high, while the horizontal is moderate.

Recharge structures
 3

Surface water has a natural tendency to recharge into the underground

water reserve [19]. Nowadays, this recharging is done using artificial
recharge structures utilizing suitable civil construction techniques. It
augments cover-up of the depleted aquifer. It helps in water
conservation for future usages. This recharging should not dilute the
quality of the existing groundwater. The main purpose of artificial
recharge of groundwater is to restore the quantity of the underground
water due to excessive use.

Commonly used recharging methods are as follows:

1. Recharging bore wells

2. Recharge pits

3. Soak away or recharge shafts

4. Recharging dug well

5. Recharge trench

6. Percolation tank.

1.3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND RAINWATER HARVESTING

Alteration of environment due to global weather change brings about

extreme climate events such as drought and flood. Observation showed
that drought and flood affected the water resources utilization for
various purposes. As a result, many countries adopting strategies to
conserve the available water resources including promoting the usage
of rainwater harvesting technique for landscaping and agriculture.
Recently, many regions around the world adopted rainwater harvesting
to reduce the impact of climate change on water supply. These regions
are India, South America, Arabian Peninsular, North America, Europe,
and Asia-Pacific. Construction of rainwater harvesting structures are
practices adopted to overcome drought periods in the above mentioned
regions. In South America, outcomes of several studies highlighted
climate variability over the continent may lead to reduction of 20 to 40%
in rainfall [3]. Rainwater storage in lowlands was a major source of
water supply during the dry season in many regions in the world. In
Arabian Peninsular, due to aridity and consequent decline in
groundwater levels, rainwater was used to recharge the groundwater
and impounding structures which helped in the management and food
production and enhancement of pastures and promoting vegetation
beside the conservation of the environment. In India, climate
fluctuations, including large spatial variation in Holocene monsoon and
temperature are now well-resolved. For example, it is predicted that
wintertime rainfall may decline by 5 to 25% and may lead to droughts
during the dry summer months for incoming decades. Traditional
 4

village tanks, ponds and earthen embankments numbering more than

1.5 million, still harvest rainwater in 660,000 villages in India and
encourage growth of vegetation [3]. Indeed, India has a long sweep of
history on management of rainwater harvesting systems. As the aridity
increased, people intensified the usage of rainwater harvesting.
Recently, impacts of climate-change and global warming on natural
systems are becoming clearly visible.
 5

HISTORY

Rainwater collection technologies have a very long history. It is as early

as Roman Civilization. It means the period is earlier than
2000 BC. Rainwater harvesting in Asia has also been carried out since
the ninth century. In rural areas of South and Southeast Asia, rainwater
is collected and conserved by constructing brush dams. In Israel,
rainwater is collected and used both for farming and residential use. In
Istanbul of the country Turkey, the world’s largest tank is created for
collection of Rainwater. In India also rainwater collection and utilization
are practiced since long Back using conventional methods. Thailand is
a pioneer in applying innovation in Rainwater collection since many
hundred centuries back. However, recently the Most recognized
utilization of the innovation is done in Africa.

2.1 OBJECTIVES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

a) Increase volume of water bodies.

Many parts of the world two kinds of seasons like rainy season
and dry Season. During dry season, there is very little or no rain.
Due to this, the water bodies like pond, rivers, etc. are dried. By
using these techniques, the water bodies can Be recharged, and
their volume can be increased [2].

b) Lessen flood and soil erosion

By storing rainwater, it reduces the surface runoff. This reduces

the surface Erosion. By capturing rainwater in reservoirs, the
flood problem in large rainfalls is Also diminished.

c) Prevent overuse of underground water

As population of a locality increases, its demand for water

increases too. To Meet this, underground water is used. Due to
this reason, the level of underground Water is decreasing rapidly.
By using rainwater, the demand on groundwater is Reduced.

d) Save money

Pumping up of underground water is very costly than that of

rainwater harvest. So, the use of rainwater saves money

2.2 COMPONENTS OF RAINWATER HARVESTING

 6

Rainwater harvesting systems consist of three basic components such

as the Catchment area, the collection device, and the conveyance
system as shown In Figure 1.

a. Catchment area

It is the area that gets rainwater directly. From this rainwater is collected and
stored. According to the types of the catchment area, it is again of two types
as follows.

2.2.1 Rooftop catchment

It is the most elementary method. Here, rooftop of any building serves as the
catchment. Rainwater is accumulated using easily available and cheap pots
kept at the side of the roof. The quantity and feature of this collected water are
influenced by the location, size, and material of the roof. A bamboo-made roof
gives the lowest quality of water. So, instead of using a bamboo-made roof, it
must be made up with other materials like galvanized corrugated iron,
aluminum, cement, etc. The catchments need to be cleaned frequently to
wash from dirt, leaves, and birdie stools. Figure 2 shows a rooftop-type
catchment area.

2.2.2 Land surface catchment

 7

Here, rainwater is collected from the common surface of any ground or land
(Figure 3). This method of water collection is also very intricate. This method
can be improved by improving surface runoff capacity. That is done using a
number of techniques. Runoff capacity can be enhanced by using drain pipes
and storing the collected runoff water. Ground catchment area is larger than
that of the rooftop area. Therefore, techniques involved with this catchment
have more chance for improvement. In this method, water is kept either in
small storage reservoirs or in small dams. This technique is usually applied for
irrigation purpose. To increase the amount of rainwater runoff within ground
catchment areas, it is required to clear or alter foliage cover, increase the
slope of ground by artificial means, and reduce soil permeability by proper
means [6].

The steeper the slopes of catchment areas, the quicker is the runoff and hence
faster collection of rainwater. But, high-speed runoff may cause soil erosion.
Therefore, its rate needs to be controlled using plastic sheets, asphalt, or tiles
along with slope. This method further reduces evaporative losses as well.
Since more than 60 years ago, flat sheets of galvanized iron with timber
frames have been used in the State of Victoria, Australia, to prevent soil
corrosion of ground catchment area. Conservation bench terraces may also be
constructed along a slope perpendicular to runoff flow for this purpose. The
soil of the catchment area must be made hard and smooth. Surplus runoff
water is directed to a lower collector and stored there. In addition to this, soil
treatment using sodium helps in reducing soil permeability [7].
 8

b. Collection and storage equipment

The collected rainwater from the catchment area is required to be collected

and stored in proper collection equipment. It can be a storage tank or a rainfall
water container. Storage tanks for this purpose may be placed either above or
under the ground. The tank needs to be fitted with tight cover for preventing
algal growth and the breeding of mosquitos. Measure must be taken to reduce
contamination of the stored water. Storage tanks can be cylinder-shaped
containers made up of ferro-cement or mortar. The former container has a
slightly armor-plated concrete base. On this base the cylindrical tank is
mounted. Again two layers of light wire are enfolded over this tank surface as
shown in Figure 4. This serves as a frame for the container. The latter type
container is a large vessel made up of mortar. This vessel is also wounded
with light wires (Figure 5). In some cases, the storage tanks are concrete tanks
(Figure 6) or plastic jars (Figure 7). The storing capacity of rainwater is
calculated considering different factors like the dry spell span, the volume of
rainfall, and the consuming demand [8–9].
 9

c. Conveyance structures

These structures are the means to transfer the collected water from
catchment surface to the storing vessels. This structure consists of a number
of downpipes attached to the rooftop gutters (Figure 8). Water collected from
the first rain may consist of dirt and debris. The conveyance structure is
required to do the primary treatment to the collected rainwater for clearing
those impurities. In one of the conveyance structures, water of first rain is
directed to the storage vessels after carrying out the primary treatment in
these pipes. This type of structure can check the quality of the water collection.
It also has a provision of manual operation of the flap. In another method, the
operation of the flap is automatic. Here, a funnel-shaped device is assimilated
within the down pipe structure at a place. A gap is intentionally kept between
the funnel structure and inner side-wall of the down pipe. Therefore, rainwater
passing through funnel gets filtered, whereas the excess of rainwater is
ejected out to the ground through the gaps. At the start of rain, a small
quantity of rain passes to the storage tank due to the collection of dirt. After
some time, this collected dirt is flushed away to the ground through the gaps.
Then, funnel can send more volume of water through pipes to storage vessels
 10

as seen in Figure 9. Instead of metals, this system uses plastic, PVC, or other
inert substance pipes to protect from acidic water [10–11].
 11

d. Filtering system

To make the collected rainwater usable, it must be contamination free, safe,

and inexpensive. For that a properly constructed water filter must be used. The
following filtering system may be used such as sand gravel filter, charcoal
filter, and PVC—pipe filter and sponge filter.Sand filters are usually the most
widely used filters. These are brick masonry structure. Small stones, gravels
smaller than stones, and sand are filled in this structure to serve as filtering
medium. Each of these filtering media is made of one filter layer. Each one of
these layers is divided using wire mesh. It is shown in Figure 10.Charcoal
filters are the drum- or chamber-shaped structure. These are filled up with
charcoal in addition to small stones, even smaller gravels, and sand layer by
layer. Here also layers are divided using wire mesh. It is shown in Figure
11.PVC filters are made up of PVC pipes filled with sand and gravel separated
by a layer of gravel (Figure 12).Sponge filters are the most simple and
inexpensive rainwater filter. It consists of a PVC drum with a sponge layer in
its midway. It is appropriate for residential usage (Figure 13).
12
 13

METHODOLOGY (CASE STUDY)

3.1 METHODS AND MATERIALS

The study area This study was carried out at Ibadan, Nigeria. Ibadan is a city in
the south-west Nigeria and the capital of State. Ibadan around 7023’47”N
3055’0”E coordinates has an estimated 1,731,000 inhabitants (2000 estimate).
The Mean annual precipitation in the city is about 1,250mm. Nigeria, the most
populous country in Africa, has an area of 923,768 km2 and a population of
over 150 million people. In Nigeria, the main rains occur between April and
October; average rainfall ranges from 2,497 mm at Port Harcourt on the Niger
Delta to 869 mm at Kano in the north (Encarta, 2004). Shittu et al. 33

3.2 METHODOLOGY

A building roofed with galvanised iron was used for this study. Rainfall data
and water demand per capita of the household were collected. Quantitative
and qualitative analysis were carried out. The first stage of the research
consisted of planning a research approach in order to develop an idea of
rainwater harvesting systems and the methods being adopted in the collection,
storage, and usage. Primary and secondary data were collected from relevant
sources. Rainfall data for a period of ten (10) years between the periods 1995
– 2004 was obtained from the Agro climatology, Department of the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IITA Ibadan. Rainfall is the most
unpredictable variable in roof catchment system as there could be
considerable variation from one year to the next.

The Rainwater Harvesting System used composed of six basic components:

Roof Catchment; Gutters and Downspout; Leaf Screen and Roof-washers;
Storage Tanks; Conveying and Water Treatment. A measure to compliment the
rain water harvest system with existing shallow well water system was
considered an option. The Design and Construction Indicators:

(i) Water Demand Determination

The average daily requirement of the household per capita used in this study is
as follows (Lee et. al 2000). Cooking (10 litres); Flushing of Toilet (20 litres);
Washing and bathing (50 litres) and other needs (10 litres).This gives a total
water demand of 80 litres per person / day. The number of persons in the
household studied is seven (7) and the calculated daily water requirement for
the household equals: 80 x 7 = 560 litres.

(ii) Runoff Coefficient

A runoff coefficient of 0.8 was adopted to account for losses due to spillage,
leakages, infiltration, roof surface wetting and evaporation which would reduce
 14

the amount of rainwater which actually entered the storage tanks (Lee et. al
2000).

(iii) Roof Catchment Area

The approximate size of the existing roof catchment area is 200 m2 (20 m x
10 m) as measured in the house plan. The catchment area was divided into
three (3) sections. Section one has area of 21 m2, section two has 25 m2while
section three has 24 m2. However, only 70 m2 of the roof is used.

(iv) Potential Rainwater Supply from the Roof Catchment

An estimate of the mean annual runoff from the roof area was obtained using
the following equations:

C R A C Where: S = Mean Rainwater (m3); R

= Mean Annual Rainfall (m/yr); A = Roof Catchment Area (m2); C = Runoff

Coefficient Supply, S = Rainfall x Area x Coefficient (runoff) Mean annual
rainfall, R for 10yrs = 1130mm/yr = 1.13m/yr. Area, A = 200m2Coefficient, C =
0.8. Hence, Supply, S = 1.13 x 200 x 0. = 180.8m3/yr = 180,800 litres/yr = 495
litre/day.

However, not all the catchment area was guttered, only 70m2 of the roof was
used. This amounts to 35% of the total capacity. Therefore, to obtain Actual
Supply = 0.35 x 495 = 173 litres /day

(v) Water Demand

Since the catchment area is fixed and the amount of rainfall cannot be
changed, the only variable that can be used to influence the available rainwater
supply is the volume of the storage tank. The total household water demand is
estimated at 560 litres / day.

(vi) Water Supply

Roof Area = 70m2; Runoff Coefficient = 0.8; Average Annual Rainfall =

1130mm/yr Therefore, Annual available water (assuming all is collected) = 70
x 1.13 x 0.8 = 63.28m3Daily Supply = 63.28 ÷ 365 = 0.173m3/day = 173 litres /
day Assuming a four month (120days) dry period for storage (November to
February), storage requirement is 173 x 120 = 20.76m3 ≈ 21m3

(vii) Gutters and Downspouts

For the three guttered sections of the roof catchment area, a gauge seven (7)
 15

aluminium sheet (section 150mm x 150mm) gutter was used; the largest roof
catchment section area being 25m2. The gutters were hung firmly in position
with metal hangers fixed to the fascia board.

(viii) Roof washers

Roof washing is of particular importance since the first flush picks up most of
the dirt, debris and contaminants that have collected on the roof and in the
gutters during dry season. The downspout was extended down with a Tee joint
to serve as Roof-washer. Below the Tee was a valve that could be opened or
closed to flush out the dirt without getting into the cistern.

(ix) Storage Tanks

The storage tanks used for the projects were 3,000 litres capacity and 2,000
litres-capacity plastic tanks. The tanks were placed about half a metre above
ground. A tight fitting covered was provided for each tank to prevent
evaporation, mosquito breeding and to keep insects, birds, lizards from
entering the tanks. There were two outlets in the tanks; one outlet was
connected to the pipe network and finally to the pump, while the other fitted
with a tap.

(x) Water Conveyance

Considering the topography of the project site, water from the storage tanks
could not flow by gravity to the house where it would be used. Therefore, a
small 0.5 horse power electric pump was fitted to convey water from the
storage tanks to the 1200 litre-elevated tank placed on the roof. The
schematic diagram of the Rainwater Harvesting System’s Storage and
Conveyance Components is as shown in figure 1.

3.3 LABORATORY TESTS

Samples of water were taken from the galvanised roof, directly from the
atmosphere and ground water. The samples were tested for pH, Alkalinity,
Hardness, Nitrate, Chloride, and Iron. The tests were carried out using
American Public Health Association (APHA, 1992) standard
methods.Harvested Rainwater Quality To ensure good quality of the harvested
rainwater, the tanks were air tight, screened and collection of water from the
tanks were either through pumping or taps fitted to the tanks. Maintenance of
the household roof catchment systems was limited to regular cleaning of the
tanks, inspection of the gutters and downpipes, including removal of dirt
accumulated on the screen. Cleaning of the roof catchment surface was done
 16

by opening the first flush valves to wash the roof and allow the dirty water to
flow out during the first major downpour. Taps and pipes fitted to the tanks
were about 10 cm above the tank floor to allow any debris entering the tank to
settle on the bottom, so as not to affect the water quality. However, to
improve the quality, a solution of 1.0% sodium hypochlorite ppm 10,000 was
added to the harvested water in the tanks at the rate of 5 ml per 25 litres of

water. This performs the function of disinfecting the water to improve the
quality.

3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The result of the tests conducted at the Laboratory of the Department of Agronomy,
University of Ibadan is as shown in Table 1. The result showed that the harvested
rainwater contains no dissolved minerals and salts and is near distilled water quality.
The pH values are within the acceptable limits of WHO drinking water. The dissolved
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as the rain fall contributes to the slightly acidic
nature of the water (Thomas and Martinson, 2003). Any trace of Nitrates or Sulphates
dissolved in the air would further reduce the pH (WHO, 2006). It was observed that
harvesting all the roof catchment areas would have produced about 495 litres of
water per day for the household. The required reservoir for the household for the dry
period would be 60 m3. With the present utilized roof area of 70 m2, 21 m3 reservoirs
would be needed for dry period. Plate 1, 2, 3 and 4 shows conveyance system, gutters
with mesh and downpipes connected to tank. With the current 5 m3 (a 2000 litres and
 17

a 3000 litres capacity) tanks and provision for another plastic tank, a 13 m3
underground tank would be required to meet up the gap. Although this would not
meet the household water demand, water from the well will augment the shortage.
Rationing and economic use of water at the peak of the dry season should also be
strictly observed. A large underground reservoir could be constructed if there is
available land space to accommodate the harvesting of the entire roof area. This
would provide the required water for the household throughout the dry period, thereby
arresting the perennial water shortage at household level as commonly experienced
in Ibadan city.

With the absence of public water in the study area, rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
System will go a long way in providing water for individual households in the areas
with provision of adequate storage facilities. The average roof area of the household
is sufficient to provide the required water especially during the dry period. Since the
rain was not harvested from the entire roof area, the incorporation of the rain water
harvesting system with the existing shallow well water system for the household use
brought appreciable relief from water scarcity. This was achieved by rationing water
demand during the dry season. The quality of harvested water is good after taking
adequate safety precautions. With the exception of alkalinity, all other water quality
parameters assessed were below WHO guideline limits for drinking water. The high
alkalinity value could be due to neutralization of the acidity by soil dust components
like Ca and Mg (Umesh et al, 2001). In the absence of dust atmosphere, the pH of
rainwater has been reported to be acidic (Umesh et al, 2001). In Nigeria, dry and early
days of rainy seasons are usually associated with dusty atmosphere, which may
contain substances such as Ca and Mg of carbonate, bicarbonate and sulphate.
The dissolution of these components by rainwater may result in high levels of
alkalinity in harvested rainwater. Apart from saving the households a lot of
time usually spent on fetching water from other sources, Rainwater Harvesting
also reduces runoff and erosion in the household. A lot of money was saved in
buying water in the household during the dry season. Rainwater Harvesting
technology seems capital intensive, but operating costs are negligible.
Nevertheless, using underground tank creates economy of space as the
reinforced concrete on top of the tank can be used
 18

for other purposes like sitting arena or parking of vehicles.

 19

AN OVERVIEW ON RWH

4.1 Traditional methods of rainwater harvesting in India

Indian administrations are taking many new projects to locate and to revive

the age-old conventional water harvesting methods [26, 27]. These

approaches are found to be very easy, reliable, and eco-friendly. The existence
of many such ancient structures has been proven by archaeological findings.
In past found evidences, it is verified that the Indus Valley civilization is
pioneer in it. Indians have built many more such innovative and effective
structures of rainwater harvesting. Although these techniques are not very
popular today, some of them are still in use. Some of such structures are
discussed as follows.Jhalaras are the stepwells having stairs in its sides.
Shapes of these structures are almost rectangular. These structures collect
the buried discharge of a nearby water reservoir, pond, or lake.Talabs are
either pond or pans. They are utilized for meeting consumable water for
drinking and domestic work purposes. These structures can be natural or man
-made.Bawaris are a type of unique structure of stepwells. These were usually
used in the ancient cities of Rajasthan.

4.2 Rain centre

The Rain Centre is a chain of organization mainly to spread literacy on

rainwater harvesting and utilization. Nowadays, it is becoming very popular
among urban Indians. It educates the significance of rain in Indian life. It also
tells about how rain influences the customs, traditions, economy, and politics
of different parts of India. This center also cites the various distinct examples
of harvesting rainwater and people working in this field. The rain centers are
mainly built to educate people to harvest rainwater in a proper manner. For
this purpose, the local NGOs and dedicated citizens of an area are selected
and first educated. The first rain center in India is established in Chennai in
2002.Now, it has a chain of 11 model rainwater harvesting projects in Delhi.
The Rain Centre builds rainwater harvesting systems for individual or
organization with their demands. The fourth rain center is established in
Burdwan, West Bengal of India. Now, offices of rain centers are operating in
West Bengal, Gujarat, Chennai, and Meerut of India 5].

4.3 Advantages

As per the previous all discussion, rainwater harvesting is very beneficial.

Some of the remarkable advantages in implementation of this technique are
marked as follows. Rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and
operate. Highly skilled manpower is not required for implementation of this
technology. Local people can be easily trained to construct and maintain
 20

rainwater harvesting plants. Construction materials are also usually locally

available. It is one of the most convenient system as it provides water at the
point of consumption. Also, work force in this technique are locally available.
The workforces are mostly the consumer themselves only. Running costs are
almost negligible [3].

4.4 Disadvantages

This technology usually has a very limited number of limitations as follows.

Rainwater harvesting technologies are mainly depending on rainfall which is
uncertain in nature. This technology uses a “bottom-up” approach instead of
the conventional “top-down” approach. Therefore, awareness about this
technology is less. For a particular area, the type and size of rainwater
harvesting are highly reliant upon the quantity and quality of its rainfall.
Catchment area and type of catchment surface are also very vital. These
 21

structures cannot be used as the primary source of water supply because

rainfall is unequally distributed in different seasons in a year. Rainwater
harvesting systems also depend on consumer demands and their affordable
budget. The architecture of this system needs to design the structure
considering every aspect from physical, environmental, to monetary point of
view [26].

4.5 Cost

The building and maintenance cost of rainwater harvesting systems varies

considering its catchment area, conveyance, and storing vessels. Place to
place also, the cost varies. Like in a study, it is found that the cost of these
structures in Asia varies from $0.17 to $0.37 per cubic meter of water storage.
This cost is quite less than that of Africa. However, rainwater harvesting
systems are less costly than the use of bore wells and tube wells if the initial
investment does not include the cost of roofing materials. The lasting period
of these structures is also more than 10 years. They need less maintenance
and operation cost [27].
 22

RE-CHARGE STRUCTURE

5.1 RE-CHARGE STRUCTURES :

The basic purpose of artificial recharge of Ground Water is to restore supplies

from aquifers depleted due to excessive Ground Water development and
usage. Detailed knowledge of geological and hydrological features of the area
is necessary for adequately selecting the site and type of recharge structures.
In particular, the features parameters and data to be considered are:
geological boundaries, hydrological boundaries, inflow and outflow of water,
storage capacity, porosity, hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, natural
discharge of springs, water resources available for recharge, natural recharge,
water balance, lithology, depth of aquifer, tectonic boundaries. The aquifer
best suited for artificial recharge are those aquifers which absorb large
quantity of water and do not release the same to quickly.

5.2 THE VARIOUS TYPE OF RECHARGE STRUCTURES ARE:

a. Recharge Through Abandoned Dug Well

b. Recharge Through Hand Pump

c. Recharge pit

d. Recharge Through Trench

e. Gravity Head Recharge Tube Wel

f. Recharge Shaft

5.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES:

In general the recharge structures are designed with total volume as twice the

peak discharge as detailed below:

5.3.1 ABANDONED DUG WELL

i. A dry unused dug well can be used as a recharge structure

ii. The recharge water is guided through a pipe to the bottom of well or
below the water level to avoid scouring of bottom and entrapment of air
bubbles in the aquifer.

iii. Before using the dug well as recharge structure, its bottom should be
cleaned and all the fine deposits should be removed

iv. Recharge water should be silt free as far as possible.

v. It should be cleaned annually preferably.

 23

vi. It is suitable for large building having the roof area more than 1000 Sqm

vii. Cost Rs.5000 to Rs.8000 as per prevailing rates in the year 2000 in
Delhi.

viii. The run off of 1# rain should not be allowed to go percolate to the rain
water harvesting structure and allowed it to go to the drain by making
suitable by-pass arrangement in water carrying pipe systems.

5.3.2 ABANDONED / RUNNING HAND PUMP

i. An abandoned running hand pump can be used for recharge

ii. The structures are suitable for the small building having the roof area
upto 150 sq.m.

iii. Water is diverted from rooftop to the hand pump through pipe of 50 to
100 mm dia

iv. For running hand pump a closing valve is fitted in conveyance system
near hand pump to avoid entry of air in suction pipe

v. Recharge water should be silt free

vi. The run off of 1 rain should not be allowed to go percolate to the rain
water harvesting structure and allowed it to go to the drain by making
suitable by-pass arrangement in water carrying pipe systems.

vii. Cost Rs.1500/- to Rs.2500/- as per prevailing rates in the year 2000 in
Delhi.

5.3.3 RECHARGE PIT

i. Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer.

ii. These are constructed generally 1 to 2 m wide and 2 to3 m deep

iii. After excavation, the pits are refilled with pebbles and boulders

iv. Water to be recharged should be silt free as far as possible.

v. Cleaning of the pit should be done annually preferably.

vi. It is suitable for small buildings having the roof top area upto 100 Sq.m

vii. Recharge pit may be of any shape i.e. circular,, square or rectangular.

viii. The run off of 1# rain should not be allowed to go percolate to the rain

ix. Water harvesting structure and allowed it to go to the drain by making

x. Suitable by-pass arrangement in water carrying pipe systems.

xi. If the pit is of trapezoidal shape, the side slopes should be steep
 24

enough

xii. To avoid silt deposition.

xiii. Cost Rs.2500/- to Rs.5000/- as per prevailing rates in the year 2000 in
Delhi.

5.3.4 RECHARGE TRENCH

i. It is constructed when permeable strata of adequate thickness is

available at shallow depth.

ii. It is a trench of shallow depth filled with pebbles and boulders

iii. These are constructed across the land slope

iv. The trench may be 0.5 to 1 m wide 1 to 1.5m deep and 10 to 20 m long
depending upon the availability of land and roof top area

v. It is suitable for the buildings having the roof area of 200 to 300 Sq.m

vi. Cleaning of trench should be done periodically.

vii. Cost Rs.5000 -10,000/- as per prevailing rates in the year 2000 in Delhi.

5.3.5 GRAVITY HEAD RECHARGE WELL

i. Bore wells/tube wells can be used as recharge structure. This

technique is suitable where Land availability is limited

ii. When aquifer is deep and over laid by impermeable strata (clay) The
roof top Rain Water is channelised to the well and Recharges under
gravity flow condition

iii. Recharge water should be silt free as far as possible.

iv. The well can also be used for pumping

a. Most suitable for the areas where Ground Water levels are deep

b. The number of recharging structures can be determined in

limited area Around the buildings depending upon roof top area
and aquifer Characteristics.

c. The run off of 1# rain should not be allowed to go percolate to

the rain Water harvesting structure and allowed it to go to the
drain by making Suitable by-pass arrangement in water carrying
pipe systems.

d. Cost Rs.50,000/- to Rs.80,000/- as per prevailing rates in the year

2000 in Delhi.
 25

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSION

Rainwater harvest system has proven to be an effective intervention for the

perennial water shortage at Household level. Therefore, advocacy for its
adoption will lead to drastic Reduction in water-shortage / water related
diseases and Improve standard of living of the people. Government Support
will help in reducing the cost and create enabling environment for the adoption
of the technology.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Rainwater Harvesting should be seen as a viable and Reliable water supply

option with abundant Rainfall potentials.

Government should recognize and adopt rainwater Harvesting technology in

National Water Policy by Undertaken initiative that will facilitate its use as it is
Commonly done in some other developing countries.

Instead of individual households, community Participatory programme should

be encouraged in RWH to make it more economical and affordable.

Since RWH can be available for dry season in Institutions, public and corporate
organizations should adopt RWH in non-potable use like toilet flushing and fire
Fighting. This will be an easy access to water which is a relatively cheap and
convenience system.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

Detail research should be carried out on artificial water recharge to provide

guidelines on their effectiveness and sustainability. In addition, this will make
possible, not only an efficient usage of the water resources being won flood
and erosion, but also promote the country’s economic growth through
technological breakthrough.
 26

REFERENCES

Smart Rainwater Management: New Technologies and Innovation

Rajeswari Pradhan and Jayaprakash Sahoo

(DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86336)

International Research Journal of Engineering Science, Technology

and Innovation (IRJESTI) (ISSN2315-5663) Vol. 4(1) pp. 032-037,
January 2015 Available online
http://www.interesjournals.org/IRJESTI

DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/irjesti.2012.066 Copyright © 2015

International Research Journals

Thamer Ahmed Mohammed, Megat Johari Megat Mohd. Noor,

Abdul Halim Ghazali Department of Civil Engineering Faculty of
Engineering University Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia e-mail:[email protected]

CPWD manual, Government of India, consultancy services

organisation, central public works department .

Che-Ani A.I, Shaari N, A. Sairi, M.F.M. Zain and M.M. Tahir,

European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.34
No.1 (2009), pp.132-140 © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009
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