LEARNING UNIT 1: BASIC GEOLOGY

Table of Contents Page no.

1  Introduction and General Overview ................................................................................... 1 
2  Purpose and Expected Outcome of the Learning Unit ....................................................... 2 
3  Definitions and Concepts .................................................................................................... 3 
4  Introduction to Geology and Geomorphology ................................................................... 4 
5  Mineralogy .......................................................................................................................... 4 
5.1  General ........................................................................................................................ 4 
5.2  Properties Used for the Identification of Minerals ..................................................... 6 
5.3  Hardness and Mohs Scale ........................................................................................... 6 
5.4  Types of Magma .......................................................................................................... 7 
5.5  Bowen’s Reaction Series ............................................................................................. 8 
5.6  Mineral Groups............................................................................................................ 9 
5.6.1  General ................................................................................................................. 9 
5.6.2  Silicates ................................................................................................................ 9 
5.6.3  Oxides ................................................................................................................. 10 
5.6.4  Sulfates ............................................................................................................... 10 
5.6.5  Sulfides ............................................................................................................... 10 
5.6.6  Carbonates ......................................................................................................... 11 
5.6.7  Native Elements ................................................................................................. 11 
5.6.8  Halides ................................................................................................................ 11 
6  Different Types of Rock ..................................................................................................... 11 
6.1  General ...................................................................................................................... 11 
6.2  Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................................ 12 
6.3  Sedimentary Rocks .................................................................................................... 13 
6.4  Metamorphic Rocks .................................................................................................. 14 
6.4.1  Major Factors in Metamorphism ....................................................................... 14 
6.4.2  Processes in Metamorphism ............................................................................. 15 
6.4.3  Types of Metamorphism .................................................................................... 15 
  

6.4.4  Metamorphic Facies........................................................................................... 16 
6.4.5  Metamorphic Grades of Common Rock Types .................................................. 17 
7  Practical Applications in Everyday Engineering ................................................................ 20 
8  Self‐Assessment Activities ................................................................................................ 22 
9  Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 22 
10  Informative Website Links ................................................................................................ 23 
References ............................................................................................................................... 23 
  

List of Tables Page no.

Table 1: Mohs Scale of Relative Hardness (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 81) .................................. 7 

List of Figures Page no.

Figure 1: Outline of the Module (Focus on Learning Unit 1) .................................................................. 1 
Figure 2: Atom, Element, Molecule, Compound and Mixture ................................................................ 6 
Figure 3: Composition of the Three Distinct Types of Magma (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 123) . 8 
Figure 4: Bowen’s Reaction Series (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 115) ............................................ 9 
Figure 5: The Rock Cycle (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 25) ........................................................... 12 
Figure 6: Mineral Composition and Classification of Igneous Rock (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 
104) ....................................................................................................................................................... 13 
Figure 7: Temperature and Pressure Conditions of Metamorphism (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004).. 16 
Figure 8: Metamorphic Facies Plotted with Respect to Temperature and Depth (Skinner, Porter, & 
Park, 2004) ............................................................................................................................................ 17 
Figure 9: Progressive Mineral Assembly Changes in the Metamorphism of Shale (Skinner, Porter, & 
Park, 2004, p. 212) ................................................................................................................................ 19 
Figure 10: Foliation, Grain Size and Mineral Assembly Changes in the Metamorphism of Shale 
(Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 213) ................................................................................................. 19 
Figure 11: Foliation, Grain Size and Mineral Assembly Changes in the Metamorphism of Basalt 
(Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 213) ................................................................................................. 20 
  

1 Introduction and General Overview

This is Learning Unit 1 of 11 units in this module (see Figure 1), which consists of ten
structured learning units and one unit dealing with one (or more) geological engineering
project(s). The focus of this learning unit on is “Basic Geology” for the prospective engineer.

Basic Geology
(Learning Unit 1)
Basic Fundamentals
Geological
and Introduction to
Engineering Projects Structural Geology
(Learning Unit 11)
(Learning Unit 2)

Geological Factors
Discontinuities and
Affecting Construction
Projects “Properties of Rock”
(Learning Unit 3)
(Learning Unit 10)

Civil
Engineering
Design
Slopes Construction Geomorphology
(Learning Unit 9) (Learning Unit 4)

Engineering Geological Hazards

Geophysics and Problem Soils
(Learning Unit 8) (Learning Unit 5)

Soil and Rock

Geotechnical Site Parameters for
Investigations Design Input
(Learning Unit 7)
(Learning Unit 6)

Figure 1: Outline of the Module (Focus on Learning Unit 1) 

Landscapes, geological hazards and problem soils are affected by geological formations,
historic and currently climatic conditions, and geomorphological processes. All engineering
structures or works are founded on or within the soil and/or rock formations. A thorough
understanding of geology is critical in identifying potential geological hazards and geotechnical
constraints in the planning and design phases of any engineering project.
An understanding of geology will assist the project manager and/or design engineer in decision
making, and in implementing effective mitigation and design measures to limit risk or damage
to acceptable limits.

1 
 
  

The main purpose of this learning unit is to introduce you to basic mineralogy, the major
mineral groups, the three major types of magma, the three major rock types, Bowen’s reaction
series, basic types of metamorphism and different types of metamorphic environments.
Practical examples will be provided, where the knowledge obtained in this unit can be applied
to everyday engineering.
In particular, you should focus on the “Expected outcomes” listed in this unit. Take note of
the “Tips” we provide, and spend time on the “Tasks” which appear throughout the unit –
although not compulsory, they will definitely benefit you. We have also provided numerous
sources throughout the unit, to clarify content.

2 Purpose and Expected Outcome of the Learning Unit

This unit offers an introduction to mineralogy and geology for the prospective engineer.
The main objectives of this learning unit are to:
a) Provide an introduction to mineralogy and geology
b) Introduce the six major mineral groups, with examples of common minerals
c) Introduce the three types of magma
d) Introduce the chemical composition of the three types of magma
e) Introduce the three types and typical rocks originating from the different types of
magma
f) Introduce the formation of different igneous rock types by means of Bowen’s reaction
series and formation environment
g) Introduce the three major rock groups, namely igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rock
h) Introduce the factors and processes involved in metamorphism
i) Introduce the different types or metamorphic environment
j) Introduce different metamorphic facies
k) Provide clarification on the different metamorphic grades, by illustrating the progress
metamorphism of two common rock types (shale and basalt)
l) Provide practical examples where the module content is applied in everyday
engineering.
At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to:
Draw a schematic of the “rock cycle”, indicating the relation between igneous rock,
sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, weathering and erosion (Skinner, Porter, & Park,
2004, p. 25)
Draw a schematic of the “tectonic cycle”, indicating the relation between rock in mantle,
magma, igneous rock, seafloor spreading, oceanic crust and subduction (Skinner,
Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 26)
Differentiate between a chemical element and a mineral

2 
 
  

Rank the five most abundant chemical elements in the earth’s crust (by weight or
volume)
Rank the five most abundant minerals in the earth’s crust (by weight or volume)
Provide the six major mineral groups, with an example of each
Provide the Mohs hardness scale and understand the importance thereof
Provide/draw a schematic of Bowen’s reaction series, indicating the main magma
compositions, minerals forming and associated rock type (both intrusive and extrusive
equivalents) and typical properties such as rock colour and grain size (ensure that you
know which minerals crystallise first, i.e., have the highest melting point)
List, discuss and identify the three main rock types (think “rock cycle” and “Bowen’s
reaction series”)
Identify and discuss the three principal metamorphic agents
Provide the sequence of metamorphism of shale with an increasing metamorphic
grade, with typical index minerals along the grade of metamorphism (ensure that you
can note and briefly explain differences in foliation, mica grain size and typical mineral
assemblages for each “grade” of metamorphism) (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, pp.
212-213)
Provide the sequence of metamorphism of basalt with an increasing metamorphic
grade, with typical index minerals along the grade of metamorphism (ensure that you
can note and briefly explain the differences in foliation, grain size and typical mineral
assemblages for each “grade” of metamorphism) (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p.
212)
Predict the possibility of occurrence of any of the six deleterious minerals that may
affect everyday engineering in a given geological setting, with limited information
provided by the geologist. (Note: You should be able to incorporate all aspects
provided in the learning unit to assess a hypothetical geological setting and indicate
whether the deleterious mineral may or may not be present.)

Tip: Ensure that you master this unit, especially Bowen’s reaction series, the three
main magma compositions and associated igneous rock formations. The minerals focused on
in this unit are the primary rock-forming minerals. This will serve as the basis for problem soil
prediction/identification, when we introduce the concept of secondary minerals (that may form
from a chemical alteration of the primary rock-forming minerals under different climatic
conditions).

3 Definitions and Concepts

Familiarise yourself with the following definitions/concepts: geology, mineralogy, mineral,
crystal, rock, rock cycle, primary rock-forming mineral, soil, sedimentary rock, igneous rock,
metamorphic rock, mechanical deformation, chemical recrystallisation, magma, basaltic

3 
 
  

magma, andesitic magma, rhyolitic magma, low-grade metamorphism, high-grade

metamorphism, pressure versus stress, discontinuous series in Bowen’s reaction series,
continuous series in Bowen’s reaction series, foliation, slaty cleavage, schistosity, intrusive
igneous rock, extrusive igneous rock, strained quartz (reactive silica) and rock names provided
throughout this learning unit.

4 Introduction to Geology and Geomorphology

In short, Geology is the study of the earth. It involves the study of the materials that make up
the earth, the features and structures found on Earth, as well as the processes involved and
acting on them. Geomorphology is the study of Earth’s land forms.
Why is this important in general? For
 the identification and exploitation of valuable resources (metals, oil, minerals, etc.)
 the identification and avoidance of geohazards
 an understanding of historic and future climate changes
 an understanding of evolution and the development of humankind
 predicting the human impact on the future (e.g., through climate change)
 expanding our knowledge of planets and the universe in general.
Why is this important to the engineer? It is key in
 understanding and predicting geological hazards that have an impact on site selection
and design
 identifying and evaluating problem soils that have an impact on the site selection,
design and mitigation measures required in any construction project
 understanding groundwater, which has an impact on site selection, design and
mitigation
 understanding and predicting rock and soil parameters, properties and behaviour that
has an impact on design and mitigation
 understanding stress regimes in numerous evaluation models.
A sound understanding of geology and geomorphology is required in many aspects of
engineering, as you will realise throughout this module.

5 Mineralogy

5.1 General
Mineralogy is a special branch of Geology (or Science) which is concerned with the
classification and properties of minerals. Crystallography is a special branch of Geology (or
Science) which is concerned with the structure and properties of crystals.
Why is it important to the engineer?

4 
 
  

1. Mineralogy and crystallography are critical in the identification of rock types, material
parameters, material properties and associated material behaviour which determine
the suitability of specific materials for certain engineering applications.
2. It can be used to predict expected problem soils that may affect engineering projects.
3. It can be used to determine the stress history and stress regime of rocks, and to
interpret structural geology, which is critical in engineering modelling and design.
Crystallography is used to identify rock-forming minerals. The minerals are used to identify the
rock type. The engineer uses rock type (and associated mineralogy) to predict the material
properties, behaviour, expected geotechnical constraints and required design measures.

Task: Try to expand on the uses, on completion of this module.

A proton is a positively charged particle. A neutron is a neutral (uncharged) particle. An
electron is a negatively charged particle. An atom is made up of three main particles, namely
protons, neutrons and electrons. All matter, including mineral crystals, is made up of atoms.
An atom is the smallest unit of a substance.
An element is a substance that is made up entirely from one type of atom. A chemical element
is the most fundamental substance into which matter can be separated by chemical means. It
is thus a pure substance made up of one type of atom (e.g., the element hydrogen (H)). Refer
to the Periodic Table of elements.
A compound is a substance made from two or more different elements that have been
chemically joined (e.g., water (H2O) is made up of the elements hydrogen and oxygen).
A molecule is the smallest unit that retains the distinctive properties of a compound.
A mixture is made up of two or more substances that are not chemically joined together.
A mineral is a naturally formed, crystalline solid with a definite chemical composition and a
characteristic crystal structure.
A crystal is a solid compound composed of ordered, three-dimensional arrays of atoms or
ions chemically bonded together and displaying crystal form.

5 
 
  

Atom

Element

Molecules

Compound

Mixture

Figure 2: Atom, Element, Molecule, Compound and Mixture 

5.2 Properties Used for the Identification of Minerals

The properties used for identifying minerals are their
1. growth habit
2. crystal form (shape)
3. colour (and streak)
4. hardness
5. lustre
6. cleavage, and
7. specific gravity.

5.3 Hardness and Mohs Scale

Hardness, which indicates the relative resistance to scratching, is governed by the crystal
structure and the strength of the bonds between atoms. For referencing purposes, the Mohs
relative hardness scale was developed based on the hardness of ten minerals. The scale,
which is useful for rapid mineral identification, varies from a relative number on the scale from
1 (softest mineral “talc”) to 10 (hardest mineral “diamond”).

6 
 
  

Table 1: Mohs Scale of Relative Hardness (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 81) 

Hardness Relative Number Hardness of Some

Mineral
on the Scale Common Objects
10 Diamond -
9 Corundum -
8 Topaz -
Hardest (10) 7 Quartz -
6 Potassium feldspar -
- Pocket knife; glass
to 5 Apatite -
4 Fluorite -
- Copper penny
Softest (1) 3 Calcite -
- Fingernail
2 Gypsum -
1 Talc -

5.4 Types of Magma

Magma is classified into three major types:
1. Basaltic magma
2. Andesitic magma, and
3. Rhyolitic magma.

Basaltic magma originates from the mantle. This is considered the primary magma, and it
contains minerals which are high in iron and magnesium (olivine and pyroxene).
Andesitic magma forms through the complete melting of a portion of the continental crust
(or through magmatic or fractional differentiation).
Rhyolitic magma forms from the wet partial melting of rock with the average composition of
continental crust (or through magmatic or fractional differentiation).
Rock colour varies from dark (basaltic) to light (rhyolitic). In simple terms, basaltic magma is
a “pure” melt comprising mainly olivine, pyroxene and calcium-rich feldspars from the upper
mantle. Andesitic and rhyolitic magma is “contaminated” by continental crust.
In general, the purer the magma (origin from mantle, with little crustal contamination), the
darker the rock colour (abundance of Mg and Fe). The more “contaminated” the magma

7 
 
  

becomes with continental crust (i.e., less pure), the lighter the rock colour (less Mg and Fe,
and more SiO2).
For the relative mineral percentages for the three types of magma, see Figure 3.

Figure 3: Composition of the Three Distinct Types of Magma (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 
2004, p. 123) 

Tips:
 Percentages are expressed as % weight.
 Take note of the Mg and Fe contents from dark (basaltic) to light (rhyolitic).
 Take note of SiO2 content from dark (basaltic) to light (rhyolitic).

5.5 Bowen’s Reaction Series

Bowen’s reaction series is key in understanding different kinds of igneous rock. It is, in
essence, the crystallisation sequence of magma as cooling occurs. Different kinds of minerals
crystallise at different temperatures. The reaction series is presented in Figure 4. There is a
discontinuous reaction series and a continuous reaction series.
The discontinuous series: Basaltic magma contains approximately 50% SiO2 (silica). Olivine
contains approximately 40% SiO2. Olivine is the first mineral to crystallise from cooling magma.
Crystallisation of olivine will thus result in residual magma (melt) with a higher percentage of
SiO2. As the magma cools, some of the olivine (crystal/solid) reacts with silica in the melt to
form pyroxene (mineral with higher silica content). As the magma cools further, the pyroxene
can react to form amphibole, which can react to form biotite. Early minerals (solids) thus react
with the magma (melt) to form entirely new minerals. This represents the discontinuous
reaction series.
The continuous series: This series happens parallel to the discontinuous series, as the
magma cools. At highest temperature, the feldspar is calcium rich. The calcium is gradually

8 
 
  

replaced by sodium. At high temperatures we see calcium-rich plagioclase and at low

temperature crystallisation we see sodium-rich plagioclase.

Figure 4: Bowen’s Reaction Series (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 115) 

Tips:
 Indicated in Figure 4 are the primary rock-forming minerals. (The altered or
decomposed products of these primary minerals are covered in a separate learning
unit.)
 Bowen’s reaction series should be known by heart, as it forms the basis for predicting
secondary minerals, material properties and performance, and for identifying potential
problem soils in any engineering project. Take your time to master the reaction series.
 Olivine crystallises first (i.e., it melts at highest temperature).
 A decrease in Fe and Mg (elements contained in the mineral olivine) results in a lighter
rock colour. Peridotite and gabbro are dark coloured, while granite is light coloured.

5.6 Mineral Groups

5.6.1 General
This section offers a basic introduction to mineral groups. Minerals, which are the building
blocks of rock, are divided into seven major groups, based on their chemical composition.

5.6.2 Silicates
Silicate minerals contain silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), the two most abundant elements in the
Earth’s crust. This group comprises the most abundant rock-forming minerals (>90% of the
Earth’s crust).

9 
 
  

Common silicate minerals include

 Olivene: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
 Pyroxene: XY (Si,Al)2O6
o X represents: calcium, sodium, iron (II), magnesium, zinc, manganese or
lithium
o Y represents: chromium, aluminium, iron (II and III), magnesium, cobalt,
manganese, scandium, titanium, vanadium
o Clinopyroxene example: augite: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6
o Orthopyroxene example: hypersthene (Mg,Fe)SiO3
 Amphibole: This mineral group is, in essence, similar to the pyroxene group, but they
contain hydroxyl (OH) or halogen (F,Cl) with some difference in the tetrahedra
structure (double, as opposed to the single structure of the pyroxene group).
o Orthorhombic series example: Anthophyllite (Fe,Mg)7Si8O22(OH)2
o Monoclinic series example: Hornblende:
(K,Na)0,1(Ca,Na,Fe,Mg)2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2
 Biotite mica: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3)O10(OH)2
 Muscovite mica: KAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2
 Plagioclase feldspar: Albite (NaAlSi3O2) and Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O2):
 Orthoclase feldspar: KAlSi3O8
 Quartz: SiO2

5.6.3 Oxides
Oxides contain oxygen (O) and one or more metals.
Some oxide minerals include:
 Hematite: Fe2O3
 Limonite: Fe2O3ꞏnH2O

5.6.4 Sulfates
Sulfates contain sulfur (S) and oxygen (O) in combination with other elements.
Some sulfate minerals include:
 Gypsum: CaSO4ꞏ2H2O
 Barite: BaSO4

5.6.5 Sulphides (US English: Sulfides)

Sulphides contain sulphur (US English: sulfur) (S) and one or more metals.

10 
 
  

Some sulphide minerals include:

 Galena: PbS (lead and sulphur)
 Pyrite (commonly known as “fool’s gold”): FeS2 (iron and sulphur)

5.6.6 Carbonates
Carbonates contain carbon (C) and oxygen (O) in combination with other elements.
Some carbonate minerals include:
 Calcite: CaCO3

5.6.7 Native Elements

Native elements are “pure” minerals, thus forming from one element.
Some native elements include:
 Gold: Au
 Diamond: C (carbon)

5.6.8 Halides
Halides are any group of naturally occurring inorganic compounds that are salts of the halogen
acids.
The more common halides include:
 Halite (rock salt): NaCl
 Fluorite: CaF2

6 Different Types of Rock

6.1 General
There are three main groups or families of rock, namely 1) igneous, 2) sedimentary and 3)
metamorphic rocks. The group is based on how it is formed (see the sections which follow).
The rock formation cycle is visually illustrated in Figure 5.

11 
 
  

Figure 5: The Rock Cycle (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 25) 

6.2 Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form during the solidification of magma (Tip: Think Bowen’s reaction series).
There are fine-grained and coarse-grained igneous rocks.
Fine-grained igneous rock is a result of the relatively fast cooling of magma. There is thus
no sufficient time for large crystal growth. The fine-grained rock types are generally extrusive
in nature or encountered on the fringes of intrusions, where the host rock allows for the
relatively rapid cooling of the molten magma.
Coarse-grained igneous rock is generally formed due to the relatively slow cooling of
magma. There is thus sufficient time for large crystal growth. The coarse-grained rock types
are generally intrusive in nature.

12 
 
  

The naming of an igneous rock is dependent on the proportion of minerals in the rock, and on
the crystal size (large vs. small). Various igneous rocks with the same mineral composition
will thus have different names, depending on the crystal size. Rhyolite is the fine-grained
equivalent of granite. Andesite is the fine-grained equivalent of diorite. Basalt is the fine-
grained equivalent of gabbro. The major igneous rock types are presented in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Mineral Composition and Classification of Igneous Rock (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 
2004, p. 104) 

Note:
 Take note of fine and coarse-grained equivalents such as rhyolite–granite, andesite–
diorite, basalt–gabbro. The mineral composition of rhyolite and granite is the same.
What is the difference between the two?
 Can you see Bowen’s reaction series in Figure 6? Compare Figure 4 with Figure 6.
Any similarities?
 Note the common minerals present in dark rock types (magma) and light rock types
(continental crust), and the relation between silica content and the rock colour.

6.3 Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks form through the sedimentation and lithification of transported materials,
which can be either physical particles or precipitated from solution in the water. Sedimentary
rocks can be divided into three major groups, namely 1) clastic, 2) chemical and 3) organic
sedimentary rock.

Typical rock types include:

 Clastic sedimentary rocks: Mudstone, shale, sandstone, conglomerate

13 
 
  

 Chemical sedimentary rocks: Dolomite, chert, banded iron formation, rock salt,
gypsum
 Organic sedimentary rocks: Coal, chalk.

6.4 Metamorphic Rocks

The word “metamorphism” is derived from the Latin (meta = change; morph = form).
Metamorphic rocks are formed through an alteration of either sedimentary or igneous rock by
means of an increase in pressure and/or temperature or alteration via fluids, with resultant
mineralogical, textural and/or structural changes. Metamorphism refers to changes occurring
in the solid phase (solid rock). If pressure and temperature conditions are sufficient to create
a melt, igneous rock is formed.

6.4.1 Major Factors in Metamorphism

There are six major factors in metamorphism:
1. Chemical composition
2. Change in temperature
3. Change in pressure
4. The presence and absence of fluids
5. Time, and
6. Stress condition or deformation mode (is the rock only compressed or is it twisted and
broken in the process of metamorphism?).
Chemical composition: Rock such as quartz sandstone mainly consists of grains/minerals
comprising the elements Si (silicon) and O (oxygen). The metamorphic rock derived from this
rock type can only contain the elements Si and O. The metamorphic derivative can thus only
be quartzite (fused grains of sand), with the elements Si and O. However, if the original rock
is a shale or igneous rock, a great number of elements are present and numerous minerals
can form under different temperature and pressure conditions from these various elements.
Change in temperature and pressure: Some minerals are stable under certain temperature-
pressure conditions. If the ranges of stable conditions are exceeded, new minerals form with
resultant new rock types (Tip: Think Bowen’s reaction series or phase diagrams). Low- and
high-grade metamorphisms exist, depending on the temperature and pressure regime. The
nature of the stress regime (uniform or differential stress conditions) is important. Under
differential stress conditions, rock will deform and undergo textural change. The temperature-
pressure regime and shear stress (differential stress) dictate the degree of metamorphism and
the texture that defines the metamorphic rock.

Presence or absence of fluid: Rock contains minor amounts of fluid in pores and fractures,
and the origin can be either from entrapment or H2O released from hydrous minerals such as
clays, amphiboles or micas. The water acts as a transporting medium and increases the rate
of metamorphism. Water build-up may result in crack propagation, and hydrothermal fluid
migration may shatter the rock mass being metamorphosed.

14 
 
  

Time: Chemical reactions take time. The time during which a rock is subject to certain
pressure-temperature conditions will determine whether a state of equilibrium was reached in
the reactions, and also the size of crystal growth (grain size). Longer time for crystal growth
generally results in larger crystal formation; less time for crystal growth generally results in
smaller crystal sizes.
Stress condition (deformation mode): Differential stress results in textural changes. If a rock
containing sheet-structure minerals (e.g., mica and chlorite) is subject to differential stress,
the minerals will crystallise perpendicular to the maximum stress (sigma 1 or σ1 – major
principal stress). The minerals will thus grow parallel to sigma 3 (σ3 – minor principal stress)
and form “sheets”. That sheet-like texture is termed foliation. At lower-grade metamorphism,
foliation is not visible to the naked eye. These microscopically aligned minerals are referred to
as slaty cleavage. At higher-grade metamorphism, foliation becomes more prominent and is
clearly visible to the eye. That texture is termed schistosity.

6.4.2 Processes in Metamorphism

Two processes cause metamorphic changes in rock (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004):
 Mechanical deformation, which includes 1) grinding and crushing and 2) the
development of foliation (Think: Shear zones, major and minor principal stresses,
chlorite, muscovite, foliation).
 Chemical recrystallisation, which includes all the changes that occur as rock is
heated (but still in the solid state), namely changes in mineral composition, new crystal
growth, and additions/losses of H2O and CO2 (Think: Cement. Caution: No melt. If it is
a melt, we are dealing with igneous rock).

6.4.3 Types of Metamorphism

Metamorphism occurs in different environments. Different types of metamorphism reflect
different levels of involvement of the mechanical deformation and chemical recrystallisation
processes. The different environments have different pressure, temperature and stress
regimes that have an impact on the degree of change or grade of metamorphism that can
occur. The main types are:
 Burial metamorphism: Burial results in an increase in induced stress and in
temperature. Buried sediments generally have relatively high H2O content, which
assists and accelerates chemical recrystallisation where new minerals form. It
generally occurs in deep sedimentary basins, such as trenches and on the margins of
tectonic plates (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004).

 Contact metamorphism: Contact metamorphism occurs on the contact zones

between hot magma intruding into a host rock. The hot magma “bakes” (chemical
recrystallisation) the host rock, resulting in a metamorphic contact aureole (zone of
metamorphism) around the intrusive body. The thickness of the metamorphosed zone
around such an intrusion depends on factors such as the size of the intrusion, the
temperature of the intrusive material, the presence of fluids, the vapours released by
the solidifying magma, etc. The thickness may vary between a few centimetres (for
thin dykes) and >100 m (for larger intrusions) (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004).

15 
 
  

 Regional metamorphism: Regional metamorphism results from tectonic forces

occurring on a regional scale. The most common metamorphic rock types form from
this type of metamorphism. Significant differential stresses are present in these
environments, with extensive mechanical deformation in addition to the chemical
recrystallisation. The resultant rock types thus have significant foliation. Common rock
types include slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss.
 Cataclastic metamorphism: Cataclastic deformation occurs in settings that are
subject to intense differential stress. Individual mineral grains can shatter and pulverise
under these intense differential (shear) stress conditions. It is thus a mechanically
dominated process. Examples of these environments are shear/fault zones and impact
event breccias.

6.4.4 Metamorphic Facies

Diagenesis occurs at relatively low temperatures and pressures. If the temperature and/or
pressure is increased, the rock will first undergo low-grade metamorphism. If the temperature
and/or pressure is further increased, the rock will undergo high-grade metamorphism. If the
temperature and/or pressure is further increased, melting will occur. Typical temperature and
pressure conditions with regions of diagenesis, grades of metamorphism and melting are
illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Temperature and Pressure Conditions of Metamorphism (Skinner, Porter, & 
Park, 2004) 

The temperatures and stresses to which rocks are subjected during metamorphism determine
the mineral assemblages in the metamorphic derivatives of sedimentary and igneous rocks
(Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 218). For given conditions of temperature and stress, the
mineral assemblages that form in rocks of different composition, belong to the same
metamorphic facies. The mineral assemblages in a metamorphic rock thus provide information
on the pressure and temperature conditions that the rock underwent. Also, by knowing the
initial rock formation and type of metamorphic environment (degree of metamorphism, i.e.,
temperature and pressure), the mineral composition of the rock can be predicted.

16 
 
  

The different metamorphic facies with respect to temperature and depth are illustrated in
Figure 8.

Figure 8: Metamorphic Facies Plotted with Respect to Temperature and Depth (Skinner, 
Porter, & Park, 2004) 

The curves in Figure 8 illustrate the following:

 Curve A: Typical thermal gradient around intrusive igneous rock that is causing contact
metamorphism
 Curve B: Normal continental geothermal gradient
 Curve C: Geothermal gradient developed in a subduction zone.
Soil will undergo diagenesis with an increase in pressure and temperature, with a resultant
sedimentary rock type such as shale or sandstone. If the normal continental geothermal
gradient curve is followed, the sedimentary rock formation will undergo metamorphism and
enter the zeolite, greenschist and amphibolite facies, and eventually melt with a further
increase in temperature and pressure. If the same geological formation undergoes
metamorphism in a higher-stress environment (Curve C), the zeolite facies will be followed by
blueschist and eclogite facies. If the same geological formation is subjected to higher
temperatures and lower stresses, the zeolite facies will be followed by hornfels facies.
Metamorphic facies provide valuable information on the historic stress-temperature conditions
to which any rock was subjected.

6.4.5 Metamorphic Grades of Common Rock Types

Metamorphic rocks are named partly for mineral assemblage and partly for texture (Skinner,
Porter, & Park, 2004).
The basic names of the coarse-grained rocks (schist and gneiss) are derived from their
textures. Mineral names are commonly added as adjectives, because the minerals are large
enough to readily identify (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004).

17 
 
  

Fine-grained rocks (slate and phyllite) also describe textures, but the mineral grains are too
small to be readily identified. These terms are thus used without adding mineral-name
adjectives (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004).
Sandstone
Sandstone largely consists of quartz particles. In pure sandstone (quartz sandstone), the
elements Si and O form the bulk of the rock. Minerals that can form structures such as mica
and chlorite are absent (or limited). The original sand (silica) grains are just recrystallised
(fused). A lack of texture (foliation) thus exists. The metamorphic derivative of pre-sandstone
(composition SiO2) is quartzite (composition SiO2).
Shale
Shale is a fine-grained (silt and clay-size mineral particles) clastic sedimentary rock. It differs
from mudrock due to the presence of laminae or parallel layers/bedding, generally less than
10 mm thick. Common mineral types include clay minerals such as illite, kaolinite, smectite
and other clay-size minerals particles such as quartz, chert, calcite and sometimes feldspar
(the latter usually weathers to clay minerals or a fine-grained variant of muscovite).
Under low-grade metamorphic conditions, muscovite and/or chlorite generally crystallise,
providing a slaty cleavage (no mineral grains are generally visible to the naked eye).
Under intermediate-grade metamorphic conditions, larger mica grains are formed with a
change in mineral assemblage (grouping). A pronounced foliation is evident, and the slate
transforms into phyllite. The majority of the grains are still not visible to the naked eye, but
some grains may be observed.
Under high-grade metamorphic conditions, a coarse-grained rock with pronounced
schistosity is formed. This rock is referred to as schist and ultimately gneiss. Mineral
segregation starts to occur in schist and is very pronounced in gneiss, with bands of
segregated dark and light minerals.
The progression in the metamorphism of shale, with reference to rock name, foliation, size of
mica grains and typical mineral assemblage, is depicted in Figure 9 and Figure 10.

18 
 
  

Figure 9: Progressive Mineral Assembly Changes in the Metamorphism of Shale (Skinner, 
Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 212) 

Figure 10: Foliation, Grain Size and Mineral Assembly Changes in the Metamorphism of 
Shale (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 213) 

19 
 
  

Limestone
Limestone (as quartzitic sandstone) lacks minerals (e.g., mica and chlorite) that can form
structure. A lack of texture (foliation) thus exists in the metamorphic derivative. Limestone (in
chemical sedimentary form) generally has some structure (e.g., bedding planes). The initial
structure is largely destroyed during the recrystallisation process. The metamorphic derivative
of limestone is marble, which has the same mineral composition as limestone.
Basalt
Basalt is a fine-grained rock (extrusive with rapid cooling) originating from basaltic magma.
Basaltic magma consists mainly of olivine, pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase (anorthite
is the calcium-rich end-member and albite is the sodium rich end-member of the plagioclase
feldspar mineral series). The minerals are anhydrous (contain no water) when metamorphism
occurs and, if water is introduced, hydrous minerals can form.
At low-grade metamorphism, minerals including chlorite, epidote, plagioclase and calcite form.
It has a pronounced foliation, with a distinctive green colour due to the green of the mineral
chlorite. The resulting rock is called greenschist.
At intermediate-grade metamorphism, the chlorite present in the greenschist is replaced by
amphibole. The grain size is relatively coarse (can be observed by the eye), and the rock type
formed is called amphibolite.
At high-grade metamorphism, the amphibole minerals present in the amphibolite are replaced
by pyroxene minerals. The foliation is pronounced, and the rock formed is called granulite.
The progression in metamorphism of basalt, with reference to rock name, foliation, size of
grains and typical mineral assemblage, is depicted in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Foliation, Grain Size and Mineral Assembly Changes in the Metamorphism of 
Basalt (Skinner, Porter, & Park, 2004, p. 213) 

7 Practical Applications in Everyday Engineering

The question may be why we bother, from an engineering perspective. Details on geology
(rock types) and structural features may be obtained from readily available information or an
appointed geologist. An understanding of the mineralogy, environment of formation of a
specific rock type, historic and current stress regimes, and intended application of the
information required, is critical.

20 
 
  

Critical information may (and generally does) get lost due to miscommunication between the
engineer and the geologist. The engineer should familiarise him/herself with minerals, rock
types, geological formations and factors that may have an impact on a design, or the suitability
of a specific soil or rock for its intended use.
Some practical applications of interest are indicated below, to highlight the importance of a
basic understanding of geology.
Mineralogy dictates the properties of rocks (rock type, structure and properties) and
determines the suitability of the specific material for use as foundational material, road
construction material, to stabilise slopes, as aggregate in concrete, etc.
With a basic understanding of the mineralogy and formation of different rock types, the
engineer may, for example, predict or identify expected constraints or possible deleterious
minerals that may have an impact on an engineering project.
Application Examples:
Mica: Biotite and muscovite mica are excessively platy. The platiness and high elasticity are
the main disadvantageous behaviours of these minerals, in pavement construction and
concrete production. Muscovite is extremely elastic, with “spring-like” properties that result in
poor compaction characteristics and also affect the concrete production properties. Mica
minerals can (and do) result in the premature failure of pavement layers and may impact
severely on the properties of concrete. Now, with reference to the proportions of typical rock-
forming minerals, you should be able to identify the potential presence of mica (especially
muscovite) for further investigation as part of your engineering project.
Reactive silica: Quartz is an important rock-forming mineral which is most resistant to
secondary changes. Quartz, which is durable, is often used as the basis for the performance
classification of natural road-building materials. Amorphous silica, cristobalite, tridymite,
chalcedony and quartz (if intensely fractured) are strained in rocks, including (but not limited
to) granite, gneiss or sandstone. Straining is a result of some degree of metamorphism. The
reactive (strained) silica is known for adverse reactions with high-alkali cements that lead to
the expansion and deterioration of concrete. Strained silica can be found in certain acid and
basic crystalline rocks, high-silica rocks, siliceous limestone, and in arenaceous rocks which
have been subjected to metamorphism or whose sand grains have been derived from
metamorphic rocks (Weinert, 1980, p. 243). Now that you know what silica, metamorphism
and reactive silica (or strained quartz) are, and in which rock types to expect the strained
quartz, you should be able to identify the potential constraint early on in a civil engineering
project. This is especially important in cement-rich construction projects such as concrete
reservoirs and the construction of bridges.

Nepheline: The mineral nepheline is present in certain rocks which originated from basic
magma. The most common rocks are basalt, andesite and phonolite. If rock containing
nepheline is exposed to the atmosphere, the nepheline may change into analcime with
associated volume expansion. In turn, volume expansion may result in the disintegration of
the rock/aggregate, with detrimental consequences. This property is not readily identifiable,
however, if expected it can be tested by boiling the specimen in distilled water for 36–48 hours.
If white spots occur on the surface, the presence is confirmed. An XRD analysis can also be
conducted to identify the mineral. Now that you are familiar with the rocks forming from basic

21 
 
  

magma (such as basalt and andesite) and the possibility of the presence of the deleterious
mineral nepheline in these rocks, it should assist you in evaluating the suitability of these rocks
for use as aggregate.
Sulphide minerals: Sulphide minerals, if exposed to air and water, oxidise and decompose
rapidly. Oxidation leads to the development of sulphates and sulphuric acid, which are
detrimental in concrete and road aggregates. The leaching of sulphide minerals can leave
voids and allow for the penetration of water/moisture and a consequential reduction in the
performance of a road. Sulphide minerals may also leach and form pits in road surfacing,
allowing water to penetrate into the lower pavement layers and reducing the performance of
the road. Sulphuric acid also affects cement- or lime-stabilised materials. Sulphate salts are
the end product of the decomposition of sulphide minerals, and these salts create further
problems in concrete and road pavements.
Soluble salts: From a road pavement perspective, salts such as sodium chlorite (NaCl) and
the sulphates of magnesium, sodium, iron and aluminium, result in excessive salt damage, if
present in certain quantities. If present in pavement layers, the salts may be transported
upwards through the pavement, by means of moisture. The salts eventually disrupt the bond
between the surfacing layer and base course, resulting in the formation of potholes where salt
blisters have developed and strip the aggregate. By understanding rock-forming minerals
(sulphides, sulphates and halides/salts), the presence of soluble salts can be predicted,
investigated and properly mitigated.
Serpentine: This mineral, which is a hydrated magnesium silicate, is an alteration product of
olivine. The mineral olivine is present in rocks formed from basaltic magma (the basic
crystalline rocks such as basalt, peridotite and gabbro). If peridotite (or dunite) alters, the
olivine minerals alter to serpentine, and the resulting rock is termed serpentinite. The mineral
serpentine occurs in many forms, one of which is chrysotile, which is a type of asbestos. The
water demand and shrinkage of serpentine, when used as a fine aggregate, is very high. The
presence of excessive serpentine in fine aggregate in concrete may result in spalling due to
large shrinkage movements (hydration reaction of cement, where the major compounds in
cement form chemical bonds with water molecules and become hydrated. The reaction uses
water and the serpentine can become dehydrated, with resultant shrinkage, excessive stress
build-up and spalling). By understanding the mineral components in rock formations, the
presence of olivine and possible secondary (altered product) minerals (e.g., serpentinite, in
this scenario) can be predicted, investigated and properly mitigated.

8 Self-Assessment Activities
Refer to the purpose and expected outcomes of this learning unit (section 2). Can you achieve
the outcomes and meet the objectives listed there?

9 Further Reading
Further reading will be beneficial to you. Address the aspects introduced in this learning unit,
by referring to the sources listed in the references below. These sources are not compulsory
reading, and you may refer to consult alternative sources.

22 
 
  

10 Informative Website Links

Numerous informative links are available on the web, with some useful links provided below.
If the links are not available, google the topic and find alternative sources, where necessary.
List of informative website links:
1) An introduction to Geology: http://opengeology.org/textbook/
2) Atoms, elements, molecules: https://www.tes.com/lessons/eeYgLwu5XDIH5Q/atoms-
elements-molecules-compounds
3) Bowen’s reaction series: https://study.com/academy/lesson/bowens-reaction-series-
crystallization-process-magmatic-differentiation.html
4) Bowen’s reaction series: https://www.britannica.com/science/Bowens-reaction-series
5) Bowen’s reaction series:
http://www.colby.edu/geology/ge141/Bowen's_Reaction_Series.pdf
6) Metamorphism: https://slideplayer.com/slide/9961720/
7) Metamorphism: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4136791/

References
Skinner, B. J., Porter, S. C., & Park, J. (2004). Dynamic Earth ‐ An Introduction to Physical 
Geology (5 ed.). Unites States of America: John Wiley & Sones. Inc. 

Weinert, H. H. (1980). The Natural Road Construction Materials of Southern Africa. (N. I. 
Research, Ed.) Pretoria, South Africa: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 
H&R Academica (Pty) Ltd. 

23