Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

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Urban Forestry & Urban Greening

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Original article

Urban forest management and governance in Latin America and the

Caribbean: A baseline study of stakeholder views
Tahia Devisscher a, *, Camilo Ordóñez-Barona b, Cynnamon Dobbs c, Mariana Dias Baptista d,
Nuria Mónica Navarro e, Luis Alberto Orozco Aguilar f, Jose Felix Cercas Perez f,
Yolanny Rojas Mancebo f, Francisco Javier Escobedo g
a
Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Forest Sciences Centre, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
b
Department of Geography, Geomatics and Environment, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
c
Center for Ecosystem Modelling and Monitoring, School of Forest Engineer, Faculty of Science, Universidad Mayor, Jose Toribio Medina 29, Santiago, Chile
d
Department of Urban Studies, University of Sheffield, S10 2TN, Sheffield, United Kingdom
e
Independent Consultant, Seattle, WA, United States
f
Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), Sede Central, Cartago, Turrialba, 30501, Costa Rica
g
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Dr, Riverside, CA, 92507, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: TenleyConway Cities in the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region and around the world are setting long-term greening
goals that include planting more trees and increasing green cover. Research in LAC cities has mainly focused on
Keywords: biodiversity and vegetation, with little understanding of the mechanisms underlying the decisions through which
Forest management stakeholders achieve urban greening. Exploring stakeholders’ views about urban forest management and
Global South
governance can provide us with an opportunity to identify needs and research gaps for urban greening and urban
Latin America
forestry in LAC. To our knowledge, there has never been a region-wide empirical study to capture these stake­
Nature-based solutions
Operational capacity holder views. Here we explore how stakeholders working in urban forestry in LAC, including governmental, and
Public participation non-governmental professionals, define urban forests, and view management and governance issues as well as
Urban forest governance educational opportunities. We used an online survey based on a combination of open- and closed-ended ques­
tions. The survey was delivered to participants at the first two regional conferences on urban forests in LAC
organized by the United Nations. We collected 91 responses from stakeholders working in 50 different cities of
varying population sizes across 6 LAC bioregions. Most respondents considered parks, planted green corridors,
street trees, and remnant forests in urban and peri-urban areas as components of urban forests. Stakeholder views
on management and governance were divided in two distinct perspectives, one dominated by public partici­
pation issues, and another one related to operational issues. Most respondents considered operational and
management tools for urban forests to exist in LAC cities, but they disagreed on the existence of inventories, long-
term strategies, and ways for the public to engage in urban forestry. Responses also revealed that some educa­
tional opportunities, such as arboricultural certification, are still relatively scarce and in high demand in the
region. This study provides a regional baseline and first insights into a more diverse view of urban forestry which
could be enriched with more empirical studies in the future.

1. Introduction Konijnendijk van den Bosch, 2017; van den Bosch and Sang, 2017; Wolf
et al., 2020). A tangible and often dominant aspect of urban greening
Urban greening has been proposed as a promising pathway to sup­ throughout the world are urban forests (Willis and Petrokofsky, 2017),
port both the protection of ecosystems and biodiversity in and the defined here broadly as all the trees and associated vegetation in a city
improvement of wellbeing of urban communities (Ferrini and (FAO, 2016). Many Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) cities are

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (T. Devisscher), [email protected] (C. Ordóñez-Barona), [email protected] (C. Dobbs), m.d.
[email protected] (M. Dias Baptista), [email protected] (N.M. Navarro), [email protected] (L.A. Orozco Aguilar), [email protected]
(J.F. Cercas Perez), [email protected] (Y. Rojas Mancebo), [email protected] (F.J. Escobedo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127441
Received 4 June 2021; Received in revised form 30 November 2021; Accepted 6 December 2021
Available online 8 December 2021
1618-8667/© 2021 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

setting long-term goals to retain and enhance urban forests, which in­ the environment and collectively owned natural resources (Folke et al.,
cludes planting more trees, maintaining and protecting existing trees, 2005; Lemos and Agrawal, 2006; Lockwood et al., 2010), including
and overall increasing urban tree-canopy cover and number of trees urban natural resources (Muñoz-Erickson et al., 2016) and urban forests
(FAO, 2018). (Lawrence et al., 2013). Management involves the process by which
While urban forest strategies advocate numerous benefits, their humans work with nature and use available institutional and/or orga­
successful implementation is complex and depends on climatic and nizational resources to implement activities and achieve a set of com­
environmental as well as socio-economic factors. Moreover, a wide mon objectives (Lackey, 1998), including those related to urban forests
range of local, national, and regional stakeholders are usually involved (Ordónez & Duinker, 2013; Steenberg et al., 2019). By combining the
in urban forest decision-making, so a crucial consideration is how framings of management and governance we can explore how urban
governance plays out among these actors (Beatley, 2017; Sheppard forest stakeholders in LAC cities view the processes of collective
et al., 2017). While some studies on urban forests in LAC cities have decision-making, as well as how they view the process of setting and
analyzed urban forest management, citizen values, and ecosystem ser­ meeting objectives.
vices provision (Escobedo et al., 2006; Ordóñez and Duinker 2014; We defined a stakeholder as any individual, institution, or organi­
Dobbs et al., 2019; Ordoñez et al., 2020), to our knowledge, there is zation that influences, and is influenced by, the decisions or activities
currently a lack of empirical, comparative, and region-wide under­ related to urban forests (Lawrence et al., 2013). Urban forests stake­
standing of how stakeholders participate in the urban forest governance holders include professionals and non-professionals working in
process (Ordoñez et al., 2020). To date, most empirical studies on urban governmental and non-governmental institutions and/or organizations,
forest stakeholder views are based in the US, Europe, Canada, and such as local governments (e.g., urban foresters, planners, engineers,
Australia (Ordóñez et al., 2019). In addition, most of this literature has etc.), private businesses (e.g., consultants and contractors), developers,
narrowly focused on the resources available to municipal governments, community organizations, private and public landowners, and research
such as budgets and personnel, or operational decisions, such as institutions (i.e., applied researchers), among others.
tree-planting campaigns and tree species selection (Ordóñez et al., The existing empirical research on the view of urban forest stake­
2019), rather than focusing on the processes of decision-making among holders is dominated by studies that identify their needs and challenges
many stakeholders. This has limited our ability to recognize broader to design and implement urban forest strategies (e.g., Hill et al., 2010;
management and governance challenges and develop better insights Rines et al., 2011; Grado et al., 2013; Kirkpatrick et al., 2013; Young,
into how stakeholders can facilitate more strategic, long-term urban 2013; Driscoll et al., 2015; Davies et al., 2017; see Ordóñez et al., 2019).
forest decision-making. Most of this literature explores how the internal operational character­
Understanding stakeholder views on urban forestry can help develop istics (e.g., budgets, personnel, and the existence of strategic policies) of
insights on urbanization processes and urban greening in LAC. Urbani­ formal institutions, mostly local governments, can help these in­
zation in LAC is driven not only by economic opportunity and popula­ stitutions meet their management objectives (Rines et al., 2011; Grado
tion growth as in other regions, but also by urban and rural development et al., 2013; Driscoll et al., 2015; similar studies in LAC cities include
policies and complex geopolitical and historical legacies, including weak Fiedler et al., 2006; Tovar-Corzo, 2013; Locastro et al., 2017). While
governance, rigid and overly intrusive government institutions, civil these issues are important to assess the state of urban forest management
unrest, and abrupt social and economic crises, among others (Roberts (Ordóñez and Duinker, 2013), there is a need to integrate governance
2005; Hardoy and Pandiella, 2009; Inostroza et al., 2013; United Na­ issues and how these are being addressed. Some key themes that are
tions, 2018). These processes have influenced urbanization and driven related to governance, but are rarely integrated, include the develop­
current urban challenges such as housing deficits, lack of social infra­ ment, implementation, and monitoring of strategies and policies (Grado
structure, increased socio-economic inequality, and decreased quality of et al., 2013; Young, 2013; Davies et al., 2017), trees on private urban
life for city residents living in poverty (Dobbs et al., 2018). Despite the lands (Ordóñez et al., 2021), climate change (Živojinović and Wolf­
attention given to greening in LAC cities, inequitable access to urban slehner, 2015), and biodiversity restoration, such as native tree species
forests remains widespread (Arantes et al., 2021). Gaining a better un­ selection (Almas and Conway, 2016), among others.
derstanding of the way in which urban forests are being prioritized, Other key governance themes include professional capacity, political
planned, and managed by stakeholders, and how these stakeholders leadership, and public participation (Ordóñez et al., 2019). A key aspect
work together, can inform strategies for improving urban forest gover­ of professional capacity is the availability of educational and training
nance and management, urban biodiversity conservation, urban green resources for professional stakeholders, such as professional education
equity, and the quality of life of urban dwellers. and certification (Hill et al., 2010; Rines et al., 2011; Driscoll et al.,
In this paper, we aim to address the gaps identified above by eliciting 2015). Empirical studies in some LAC cities based on the view of local
the views of urban forest stakeholders working in the LAC region government professionals indicate that, as a wider range of stakeholders
regarding urban forest management and governance. Specifically, the come together to make collective decisions, the lack of equivalency in
objectives of the study are to explore stakeholder views on: (1) urban professional capacities hinders decision-making (e.g., Tovar-Corzo,
forest definitions and main components; (2) urban forest management 2013).
and governance issues; and (3) availability of educational and training Political leadership relates to the general notion of how institutions
opportunities in urban forestry. We use a social science, explorative dictate the management of collectively owned natural resources (Folke
approach to establish a region-wide baseline understanding of such et al., 2005; Ostrom, 2005), including government institutions. This
views, grounded in the lived experiences of the stakeholders. We also does not mean that the government is the only or most important
explored how the geographical and professional characteristics of stakeholder, or the only one who can provide leadership, but rather that
stakeholders influence their views. We expect the insights of this study it is a central stakeholder that can play a leading role in many circum­
to enrich the global urban forest literature by incorporating the realities stances. The literature notes how the political leadership provided by
of a large, diverse, innovative, and highly urbanized region such as LAC. local governments has been important in providing resources to
non-governmental organizations, and in facilitating stakeholder coor­
2. Theoretical framework dination (Kenward et al., 2011; Lawrence et al., 2013; Muñoz-Erickson
et al., 2016; Devisscher et al., 2016; Gulsrud et al., 2018). It is still un­
This study builds on our current understanding of urban forest clear how political leadership is viewed in LAC urban forestry, where
governance and urban forest management. Governance includes the there is some indication of lack of transparency and trust towards local
collection of institutions, organizations, rules, and processes of collec­ governments (Pineda-Guerrero et al., 2021).
tive decision-making that allow stakeholders to make decisions about Finally, governance researchers have shown that to successfully

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T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Elements of the key survey questions used in this study. Objectives and topics (Source) Question and scale description [internal
Objectives and topics (Source) Question and scale description [internal item code]
item code]
1. certification programs for arborists
Section 1: What components do you think should be [UFE1]
Urban Forest Definitions included in a definition of the urban 2. conferences and workshops on urban
Ordóñez et al. (2020) forest? (List of 10 elements): forestry [UFE2]
1. Street trees 3. training on best practices [UFE3]
2. Urban parks 4. higher education programs relevant to
3. Natural forests and woodlots around urban forestry [UFE4]
cities
4. Nature remnants in the city (wetlands,
riparian forests, abandoned land, implement urban forest agendas, formal institutions need to successfully
cliffs, etc.) engage with the public. It is then important to develop a better under­
5. Planted green corridors in the city
standing of how stakeholders view public participation. This can eluci­
(along avenues and rivers, along bike
trails, etc) date how LAC cities are fostering active stewardship of the urban forest
6. Private gardens and lots through, for example, co-management arrangements and other decen­
7. Lawn-covered playground tralized forms of decision-making (Gulsrud et al., 2018; Buijs et al.,
8. Green roofs, green walls, green 2019; van der Jagt et al., 2019). To date, most of the empirical literature
bridges
9. Urban farms or agricultural areas
on stakeholder views is limited to educating the public, mainly by
10. Other (open-ended) raising public awareness about the benefits of trees to reduce barriers for
Section 2: How much do you agree/disagree with the program implementation, rather than engaging the public in
Views on Management and following statements? The statements decision-making (Grado et al., 2013; Kirkpatrick et al., 2013; Young,
Governance complete the sentence: “At present, in the
2013; see Ordóñez et al., 2019).
Hill et al. (2010); Rines et al. (2011), city I work in/with, there is/are...” (Level of
Grado et al. (2013), Kirkpatrick et al. agreement (1–5) with 16 statements)
(2013); Young (2013); Driscoll et al. 3. Methods
(2015); Ordóñez et al. (2019) 1. a plan or strategy with clear visions
and objectives [UFG1]
We developed appropriate methodological protocols and procedures
2. an inventory of public trees (ideally
georeferenced) [UFG2]
to meet the objectives of this study centered on exploring the views of
3. an Inventory of private trees (ideally urban forest stakeholders in LAC region regarding (1) their definition of
georeferenced) [UFG3] urban forests, (2) how they prioritize issues affecting urban forest
4. political leaders that raise the profile management and governance, and (3) the availability of educational
of the urban forest and trees in the
and training opportunities. We used an online survey to collect data on
community [UFG4]
5. a list of appropriate species to plant stakeholders’ views, and delivered this survey in two consecutive
[UFG5] rounds. We then used several quantitative (statistical) and qualitative
6. a system to monitor urban forests (interpretative) analyses to meet the objectives previously set. We also
long-term [UFG6]
explored how the geographical and professional characteristics of
7. one team that coordinates decisions
across departments influencing public
stakeholders influence the responses obtained.
trees [UFG7]
8. clear ordinances/regulations for 3.1. Survey design, content, and delivery
urban trees [UFG8]
9. research partnerships with research
institutions aimed at improving An online survey based on an exploratory, tailored, and targeted
management of urban forests [UFG9] approach (Dillman et al., 2014) was designed comprising of 20 questions
10. adequate consultation and grouped into three main sections, each representing a research objec­
engagement with the community in tive, namely: (1) urban forest definitions; (2) views on urban forest
decisions related to urban forests
[UFG10]
governance and management issues; (3) availability of educational and
11. trust among residents towards training opportunities. The survey also included another three minor
management agencies [UFG11] sections that asked respondents for information on their: (4) charac­
12. adequate budget to manage the urban teristics of job in urban forestry; (5) stakeholder demographics including
forest [UFG12]
most recent qualification, gender identity and age range; and (6) expe­
13. technical maintenance plans to
maintain forest health and manage riences in urban forestry. Sections 1–3 correspond directly to the three
risk (pruning, watering, fertilizing, main objectives of the study, while sections 4 and 5 were used to un­
etc.) [UFG13] derstand the sample characteristics, and how these characteristics may
14. trained and certified human resources influence stakeholder views. Section 6 was additional to these objectives
[UFG14]
15. sufficient education of the community
and an optional question for all respondents. It was used to collect
about urban forests [UFG15] qualitative data that could complement our study and expand on past
16. plans to manage climate change- and future changes in urban forest management and governance
related hazards and other distur­ (Table 1).
bances affecting the urban forest
To better understand how urban forests were defined by stakeholders
[UFG16]
Section 3: How much do you agree/disagree with the (study objective 1, survey Section 1), we constructed a list of urban
Availability of Educational and availability of the following educational forest components based on the literature review by Ordoñez et al.
Training Opportunities activities? The items answer the question: (2020a).
"In the city where I work, there are...” (Level To understand stakeholder views about urban forest management
of agreement (1–5) with 4 statements)
and governance we developed a close-ended question based on a multi-
dimensional scale (study objective 2, Section 2) combining items pre­
viously included in the surveys conducted by Hill et al. (2010); Rines
et al. (2011); Grado et al. (2013); Kirkpatrick et al. (2013); Young

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T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Table 2 priorities/goals for urban forestry in your country in the next decade?”.
Simplification of variables used in the analyses. The first version of the online survey was developed in English and
Variable Threshold Conversion was tested by recruiting a sample of 10 researchers as respondents.
These researchers came from different geographic locations in the LAC
Spanish language 78 % of responses Binomial
More than ten years of work 45 % of responses Binomial region and included some authors of the study. Their feedback mainly
experience focused on survey length and clarity regarding items included in Section
Professional domain: Binomial 2. Once revised, the survey was translated into Spanish and Portuguese
government 34 % of responses for final delivery. The survey was uploaded onto ®Qualtrics and was
academic 34 % of responses
Scale of implementation of 43 % of responses Binomial
approved by the independent Behavioural Research Ethics Board of the
work at the municipal University of British Columbia, Canada, in line with the British
scale1 Columbia Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act.
City population: Binomial For recruiting respondents, we targeted professionals and non-
more than 1 million 44 % of responses
professionals working in municipal, regional, or national governments;
more than 5 million 24 % of responses
Gender female 45 % of responses Binomial non-governmental organizations, such as community greening groups
Age less than 40 years 78 % of responses Binomial and knowledge sharing networks; research institutions, including both
Education level with 90 % of responses Binomial public and private universities; private sector, such as consultants and
university degree contractors; and international or inter-governmental organizations. To
Six bioregions Collapsing Central America Five single
and Caribbean bioregions due binomial
target these participants, we delivered the survey between 2017 and
to low response variables 2019 to a list of contacts obtained from the first and second Latin
1
American Fora on Urban and Peri-urban Forests (see details in Appen­
Categories for this variable overlapped, so all responses that selected
dices, Table A1), coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization
municipal were included.
(FAO) of the United Nations. In sum, the respondent recruitment was
done in two rounds: The first targeted attendants of the first forum and
(2013); Driscoll et al. (2015), as well as other items extracted from the
the second targeted people registered for the second one (see details in
literature on urban forest stakeholder views by Ordóñez et al. (2019; see
Appendices, Fig. A1). The total number of responses we received was 91
also Table 2). This multi-dimensional scale is ultimately based on peo­
after removing duplicates and incomplete responses. The response rate
ple’s views, which we define broadly in this study as how people sense
for the first round was 45 % (out of 184 contacts), and for the second
and then mentally process information from the outside environment.
round 26 % (out of 261 contacts). All personal information was removed
These views are based on people’s experiences of these issues, which
prior to analysis.
ultimately influence people’s perceptions, including their values, be­
The question about stakeholder experiences in urban forestry (Sec­
liefs, and attitudes, as well as their behavior or conduct.
tion 6, optional), was only included in the second round of recruitment.
To understand the availability of educational and training opportu­
Verbatim responses for this question were collected digitally through
nities, we developed a multi-dimensional scale on these issues (study
®Qualtrics. Responses were analyzed in Spanish and Portuguese, and
objective 3, Section 3) using a list of four urban forest education and
then translated to English (see Data Analysis section).
training items.
Finally, to understand stakeholder experiences in urban forestry
(Section 6, optional),we asked two open-ended questions about the past 3.2. Data processing
and future of urban forests in LAC, including: “What do you think has been
the most significant change(s) achieved in urban forestry in your country over Data were processed to eliminate missing responses, complement
the past decade?”, and “Based on your experience, what are the key geographical information with additional data to facilitate interpreta­
tion, and categorize and/or collapse responses.

Fig. 1. Characteristics of study sample (n = 91) by (a) work experience, (b) type of sector, and location of respondents categorized (c) by population size and (d)
by bioregion.

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T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

We complemented geographical information by adding data on city loaded to each dimension), as well as for the overall scale average (i.e.,
bioregion and city population. City population was obtained from the average of all items). We only used the overall average of the educa­
World Population Review (2020) and was categorized using the United tional opportunities scale. We included all single numeric binomial
Nations (2018) framework: smaller than 250 thousand people; 250–500 variables described in Section 3.2 in these analyses (i.e., language, years
thousand people; 500 thousand to 1 million people; 1− 5 million people; of experience professional domain, scale of work implementation, city
5–10 million; and >10million people (Note that the cut for each cate­ population, and bioregion). We used a stepwise regression analysis
gory was one person below the threshold, e.g. 250–499 thousand peo­ approach with the lm and step functions in R (v. 4.0.2) in the “backward”
ple). To allow region-wide comparisons we categorized the city location mode to generate the models. The technique allowed us to improve the
of the respondent into bioregions for LAC based on Dinerstein et al. predictability of the scales by discarding variables iteratively and
(1995). To determine the bioregion, each city was first matched to their keeping the ones that significantly contributed to the model (Hair et al.,
major habitat type, then to the corresponding ecoregion and bioregion 2014). All models were adjusted for demographic variables, including
(Dinerstein et al., 1995). Based on the geographical location of our re­ gender female, age less than 40 years, and education university degree.
sponses, only six bioregions were used in this classification (Fig. 1). None of these variables were removed during the stepwise process to
We also simplified some of our variables to reduce: (1) over- keep all the models consistent with each other (Hair et al., 2014). Only
prediction of regression models based on a wide range of categorical statistically significant results are reported.
and ordinal variables (Rosner, 2011; Hair et al.;, 2014); (2) skewness in
categorical variables where not enough responses exist for certain cat­
egories (e.g., some bioregions not having enough responses); and (3) the 3.4. Qualitative data analysis
multi-dimensional nature of the rating scales, specifically the gover­
nance and management scale (Section 3; see Table 1). To address these The optional questions included in Section 6 complemented our
concerns, we collapsed and/or segmented the professional and de­ understanding of stakeholder views on urban forest management and
mographic variables (Sections 4–5) into single numeric binomial 1/0 governance. To analyze these open-ended responses, we used a quali­
scales or fewer categories (Table 2). tative interpretative approach grounded on the view of respondents
(Creswell, 2017). Verbatim text responses were imported into Excel and
3.3. Quantitative data analysis analyzed using interpretative, inductive coding techniques established
by Corbin and Strauss (2015). This entailed assigning codes to the ideas
Descriptive statistics were obtained to understand the sampled being conveyed in the answers through interpretation. Coding consis­
population, including their professional and demographic characteris­ tency and accuracy were achieved by applying the principles of densi­
tics (Sections 4–5), and their definitions of urban forests (Section 1). We fication, constant comparison, and hierarchy as per Corbin and Strauss
performed and reported significant results from analysis of means (2015). This process involved consolidating ideas into one or few codes
(Welch Two Sample t-test) to understand the difference of responses based on how frequently the idea is mentioned in the context of the
among all the binary geographic and demographic variables. answer to a question, as well as of the overall dataset. Codes were then
To achieve the second and third objectives of our study, we imple­ grouped to create new codes at a higher level of abstraction. In doing so,
mented different statistical analyses. First, to better understand how this technique also allowed us to compare and identify patterns across
stakeholder expressed different views about urban forest management answers. Precision of terms used in the coding is key in these types of
and governance, we used the scale on governance and management analyses, so we provide some examples of these codes based on the
while recognizing that this was the first time such scale was used (Sec­ original data, as well as the full list of codes used for analysis (see details
tion 2). To do this, we extracted the key dimensions (also termed latent in Appendices, Table A6).
variables, components, or factors) of this scale based on principal
component analyses (PCA) with a varimax rotation (for full details, see 4. Results
results in Table 2) using the princomp function in R (v. 4.0.2). Explor­
atory PCA provides a useful way to extract the different dimensions of a In line with the objectives of this study, this section provides a
scale (Thurstone, 1947; Kaiser, 1974). A varimax orthogonal rotation is summary of the views of different urban forest stakeholders working in
usually employed to improve statistical validity of the PCA model and the LAC in relation to: (1) urban forest definitions, (2) urban forest
improve interpretability. Dimensions were then extracted based on their management and governance issues, and (3) availability of educational
eigenvalue (>1.0) and variance explained (cumulative above 50 %). We and training opportunities. We complement this information with
also used the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test (values 0.6− 0.9 accepted) and empirical qualitative data on the future outlook of urban forestry in the
Bartlett’s sphericity test (significant at the 95 % level) to assess the region as elicited through the open-ended questions in Section 6.
outputs. After extracting dimensions, we generated new scales for each
dimension using the average scores of all the items that loaded onto each
component (loadings >0.7). We validated these new scales by con­ 4.1. Types of urban forest stakeholders
firming their construct validity (Cronbach alpha statistic, see Appen­
dices, Table A2) using the alpha function in the psych package of R (v. We collected data from a wide range of stakeholders in government
4.0.2). We also performed a PCA on the availability of educational op­ and non-government organizations. Almost half of the respondents (45
portunities scale (Section 3), and confirmed the construct validity of the %) had more than 10 years of experience in urban forestry, urban
scale (see Appendices, Table A3). greenspace, urban nature, or closely related fields. Respondents were
To explore how the geographical and professional characteristics of based in 50 different cities of varying population sizes. There were also
stakeholders influence the responses obtained, we tested the relation­ few international stakeholders (n = 4) working in cities outside the re­
ship between the geographical and professional characteristics of re­ gion. Some responses (8%) came from cities of more than 10 million
spondents with their ratings of the governance and management scale inhabitants, and many responses (32 %) came from cities with a popu­
and each of its dimensions (Section 2) and availability of educational lation between 1− 5 million. LAC bioregions were represented relatively
opportunities (Section 3). We associated respondents’ geographical and equally, after collapsing the Caribbean and Central American bioregions
professional characteristics (Sections 4–5) using standard linear multi­ (Table 2). The sample of respondents showed a balanced gender distri­
ple regressions (ordinary least squares) with these two scales (see bution (45 % female, 44 % male, 11 % other) and most of the partici­
Appendices, Tables A4 and A5). We generated models for each dimen­ pants had completed a postgraduate degree (58 %). More than half of
sion of the governance and management scale (i.e., average of items that the respondents (61 %) were above 40 years old (Fig. 1).

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T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Fig. 2. Stylized representation of the components that define the urban forest based on empirical data collected from stakeholders in LAC cities (n = 91). Component
size relates to the percentage of respondents that considered it as part of the urban forest.

Fig. 3. Cumulative ratings for agreement and disagreement with respect to all items of the urban forest management and governance scale (Section 2; Table 1)
(n = 91). Survey question: How much do you agree/disagree with the following statements? “At present, in the city I work in/with, there is/are… ".

4.2. Definitions of urban forests (e.g., planting, species lists) as well as management tools (e.g., clear
regulations) exist in most cities, but they disagreed on the existence of
As components for defining urban forests (section 1), most re­ inventories for trees on private lands and issues related to public
spondents chose urban parks, planted green corridors, street trees, na­ participation (i.e., public education and trust in government in­
ture remnants or fragments in the city, and natural forests and woodlots stitutions) (Fig. 3).
in the peri-urban area (Fig. 2). Fewer respondents chose other compo­ The PCA of this scale yielded a two-component solution that
nents such as private gardens, green roofs and walls, and urban farms as explained 65.2 % of the total variance. The results suggested that there
part of the definition. Only one fifth chose lawn-covered playgrounds as was a separate view regarding public participation, and another sepa­
an element that makes part of an urban forest. rate view regarding operational issues. For some respondents, issues
related to public participation, such as public education and engage­
ment, were more important than other issues. While for other re­
4.3. Views on management and governance issues spondents, issues related to management operations, such as having a
tree species list and clear regulations were more important (Table 3).
We found that most respondents agreed that operational resources

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T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Table 3 There were some significant differences in how respondents rated the
PCA results for multi-rating scale on considerations in governance and man­ overall scale as well as its separate dimensions. A higher average rating
agement (section 3) showing separate dimensions (loadings >0.7 highlighted for the public participation dimension was reported by respondents aged
and used for averaging individual component scales; see methods). less than 40 years (M = 2.3, SD = 0.16) in comparison to older re­
Dimensions (components/factors) spondents (M = 1.9, SD = 0.16) (t(89) = 1.77, p = 0.02; Welch Two
At present, in the city I work in/with, there is/
1 Public 2 Operational Sample t-test). However, our regression analyses did not reveal any
are…
participation geographical or demographic factor influencing the way respondents
1 a plan or strategy with clear visions and 0.542 0.601
viewed the overall scale or the individual dimensions of the scale (see
objectives [UFG1] Appendices, Table A4).
2 an inventory of public trees (ideally 0.312 0.508
georeferenced) [UFG2] 4.4. Views on educational opportunities
3 an Inventory of private trees (ideally 0.386 0.343
georeferenced) [UFG3]
4 political leaders that raise the profile of the 0.558 0.413 In terms of educational and training opportunities (Section 3), we
urban forest and trees in the community found that conferences or workshop events were the most available
[UFG4] educational opportunities, while certification programs for arborists and
5 a list of appropriate species to plant [UFG5] 0.271 0.839 trainings on best practices were not widely available across cities
6 a system to monitor urban forests long-term 0.593 0.497
[UFG6]
(Fig. 4). Those reporting the existence of educational activities within
7 one team that coordinate decisions across 0.480 0.598 their cities were participants closely related to research/teaching in­
departments influencing public trees stitutions such as universities (public and privates), or those who have
[UFG7] access to, or are currently engaged in, an urban forestry-related associ­
8 clear ordinances/regulations for urban trees 0.324 0.765
ation and have a network of urban foresters/arborists elsewhere.
[UFG8]
9 research partnerships with research 0.535 0.474 Perhaps because of this reason, a large proportion of the respondents (44
institutions aimed at improving %) recognized the availability of formal higher education opportunities
management of urban forests [UFG9] relevant to urban forestry. The educational opportunities scale provided
10 adequate consultation and engagement 0.780 0.417 reliable answers across all four items (see details in Appendices,
with the community in decisions related to
urban forests [UFG10]
Table A3).
11 trust among residents towards 0.797 0.373 There were some significant differences in how respondents rated the
management agencies [UFG11] scale. A higher average rating was reported by respondents in the pro­
12 adequate budget to manage the urban 0.747 0.275 fessional government domain (M = 3.3, SD = 0.21) in comparison to
forest [UFG12]
those not in government work (M = 2.4, SD = 0.16) (t(89) = 3.22,
13 technical maintenance plans to maintain 0.516 0.600
forest health and manage risk (pruning, p = 0.002). A higher average rating of the scale was also reported by
watering, fertilizing, etc.) [UFG13] female respondents (M = 3.0, SD = 0.18) in comparison to male or other
14 trained and certified human resources 0.486 0.538 gender respondents (M = 2.4, SD = 0.19) (t(89) = 2.24, p = 0.03)
[UFG14] (Welch Two Sample t-test). Our analyses based on regression confirmed
15 sufficient education of the community 0.744 0.380
about urban forests [UFG15]
this, showing a significant, although small (r<0.5), association between
16 plans to manage climate change-related 0.800 0.377 the professional government domain of respondents with a higher
hazards and other disturbances affecting perception of educational opportunities, controlling for demographic
the urban forest [UFG16] variables (i.e., gender, age, and education) (see Appendices, Table A5).
Eigenvalues 9.419 1.015
% Variance (Cumulative) 58.9 % (58.9 %) 6.34 % (65.2
%) 4.5. Observations on changes and priorities in LAC urban forestry
Cronbach alpha 0.930 0.842
The respondents who answered the optional open-ended questions
(Section 6) frequently reported that the main observed changes in the
past ten years in urban forestry was related to strategic and operational
issues (Fig. 5). As most notable changes, the respondents identified the

Fig. 4. Ratings for agreement and disagreement with respect to individual items of the educational opportunities scale (Section 3; Table 1) (n = 91). Survey question:
How much do you agree/disagree with the availability of the following educational activities? "In the city where I work, there are… ".

7
T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Fig. 5. View on changes in the last 10 years, and priorities for the next 10 years, indicating themes and codes emanating from interpretative coding, based on
qualitative empirical data collected from stakeholders in LAC cities (n = 91).

creation of management documents, urban forest inventories, education and playgrounds into policies related to climate change, biodiversity, or
and training or personnel, dissemination of best management practices, even public health (Escobedo et al., 2019).
and the increased value or importance of the urban forest (see examples The inclusion of private trees into the definition of urban forest in
in Appendices, Table A7). The main priorities identified for the next LAC could push towards thinking of urban forests as a continuum that is
decade were almost the same as the changes identified in the first not separated by the ownership of the land. This idea could help un­
question. Surprisingly, governance aspects such as policy coordination derstand and promote a more active role of urban residents in
and strengthening partnerships were not identified as a priority for the conserving and increasing the green in cities, especially within a climate
next decade (Fig. 5). adaptation framework. Cities in the Global North are already high­
lighting the importance of vegetation in private areas (Dobbs et al.,
5. Discussion 2013; Phelan et al., 2018; Ordóñez et al., 2021).

We collected data from a wide range of urban forest stakeholders, 5.2. Urban forest management and governance from a LAC perspective
including local government and non-governmental professionals and
non-professionals. The diversity of stakeholders in our study echoes In terms of urban forest management themes, we found that while
other studies in North America, Europe, and Australia, where empirical some aspects were considered by stakeholders to be adequately
social science research has been conducted on local governments, non- addressed, others were lagging. For example, planting species lists and
governmental greening groups, private landowners, among others the clarity of regulations seemed to be adequately addressed. These
(Lawrence et al., 2013; Molin and Konijnendijk van den Bosch, 2014). results differ from previous research that found that urban forest
stakeholders, mostly in the US, viewed regulations in their cities as
5.1. Urban forest definitions from a LAC perspective inadequate (e.g., Hill et al., 2010; Rines et al., 2011; Grado et al., 2013;
Kirkpatrick et al., 2013; Young, 2013; Driscoll et al., 2015). In contrast,
The definition of urban forest in LAC is more narrow than interna­ data on trees in private urban land, public participation, and plans to
tional definitions such as the one proposed by FAO (Salbitano et al. manage climate change-related hazards were viewed as currently
2016), and is more aligned with urban forest definitions of North inadequate. These results echo the lack of data and research focused on
America (e.g., Wirtz et al., 2021). The definition for most LAC stake­ trees in private urban lands (Ordóñez et al., 2021), public participation
holders in our study includes mainly public areas with trees and forests (Gulsrud et al., 2018; Buijs et al., 2019; van der Jagt et al., 2019; Phelan
and areas that are considered as forest fragments located in the et al., 2018), and planned responses to climate change adaptation
peri-urban landscape. These components of the urban forest are prob­ building on urban forestry (Živojinović and Wolfslehner, 2015).
ably related to their niche of influence/decision-making. Moreover, our findings highlight the need to strengthen institutional
The definition in LAC did not include components usually related to capacity and citizen participation in LAC urban forestry. It is important
green infrastructure, such a green roofs and walls. Under the nature- to note that, based on our survey, we found that LAC stakeholders’ views
based solutions umbrella, other global regions such as Europe are on these issues are not monolithic, but rather distinct and separate for
including green roofs and walls, rainwater gardens, urban agriculture operational capacities and public participation.

8
T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

First, in our study, stakeholders indicated the need for increased where, and how urban trees are planted or removed (Conway et al.,
institutional capacity, which includes not only budgets and personnel, 2011; Daniel et al., 2016), our survey did not capture as many pro­
but also strategies and policies (Fiedler et al., 2006; Hill et al., 2010; fessionals in non-governmental organizations and businesses. Rather,
Rines et al., 2011; Grado et al., 2013; Kirkpatrick et al., 2013; Young, most of our sample was represented by academic and local government
2013; Driscoll et al., 2015; Davies et al., 2017; Locastro et al., 2017; stakeholders (68 %). These may be because these stakeholders are more
Ordóñez et al., 2019). The importance of improving urban forest stra­ likely to engage in the types of regional fora where we collected our
tegies has also been mentioned by researchers in other world regions, data. Overall, the data did not provide enough professional and de­
including in Canadian (Ordóñez and Duinker, 2013), British (Davies mographic variability (i.e., government vs. non-government stake­
et al., 2017), and Australian (Phelan et al., 2018) urban forestry. What holders; etc.) to associate views about management and governance
we can assume from the survey results is that there seems to be a reactive issues with professional and sociodemographic characteristics. A more
rather than a preventive or proactive approach to urban forestry in LAC comprehensive, stratified, and representative dataset with a wider range
due to a general lack of operational and strategic capacities (Dobbs et al. of respondents would be required to assess these associations in the
2018). future. Nevertheless, we provide an overview of what are the key issues
Another aspect of institutional capacity is professional capacity, that interest stakeholders and we have established a data collection and
which among other things depends on professional education (Hill et al., analysis approach that could be used in future studies to test the social
2010; Rines et al., 2011; Tovar-Corzo, 2013; Driscoll et al., 2015). In our and geographical pathways that may influence stakeholder views on
study, we found that urban forest stakeholders perceived educational urban forest governance and management. In that sense, this study en­
and training opportunities to be reasonably available in LAC. Even riches the methodological approach to assess stakeholders’ views on
though we did not see any influence of government vs. non-government urban forest management and governance empirically and
characteristics on these views, our sample of respondents came mostly comparatively.
from public and research institutions, so it is yet unclear how other types
of stakeholders perceive this issue. Either way, education and training 6. Conclusions
are key to building professional capacity in LAC cities (e.g., Tovar-Corzo,
2013). An important aspect of such education and training is moving This study provides insight into how a diverse range of urban forest
from tree-focused capacities to system-level capacities, including seeing stakeholders view issues related to the management and governance of
the urban forest as an ecosystem integrated into almost every aspect of urban forests in different LAC cities. To our knowledge, this is the first
urban planning and governance (Lawrence et al., 2013; Ordóñez and region-wide, social science study on urban forest stakeholder views in
Duinker, 2013; Phelan et al., 2018). This shift can help raise the level of LAC. This baseline study needs to be complemented with future studies.
professionalization and forward-thinking in LAC urban forestry, as it has Our findings show that most respondents considered operational and
been the case in other world regions (O’Herrin et al., 2020). management tools for urban forests to exist in most cities, but they
Second, public participation is key to urban forestry because urban disagreed on the existence of inventories for trees on private lands and
forest stewardship is not just a technical issue to be solved by profes­ ways for the public to engage in urban forestry. For some respondents,
sional stakeholders. Broader community issues, such as public percep­ issues related to public participation were more important than other
tions of and support for urban forests, play a key role in urban forest issues, while for other respondents, issues related to operations, such as
stewardship. Engaging communities then becomes a key aspect of such having clear regulations, were more important. Our analysis did not
stewardship and also human behavioural change (Molin and Konijnen­ reveal any geographical or demographic factor influencing respondents’
dijk van den Bosch, 2014; Gulsrud et al., 2018; Buijs et al., 2019; van der views, but we speculate this is due to limitations inherent in the data.
Jagt et al., 2019). Public participation in urban forestry can also be We also found that, from the perspective of stakeholders, the main
useful for data collection and posterior monitoring, which are highly priorities for urban forestry in the next decade are strategic and opera­
valuable for managing collectively-owned natural resources (Folke tional, including the creation of management documents, education and
et al., 2005; Lemos and Agrawal, 2006; Lockwood et al., 2010; Viana training, and the dissemination of best management practices. While
et al., 2020). In our study, we found that stakeholders hold separate conferences or workshop were the most available educational oppor­
views about public participation. Some stakeholders view public tunities in the region, formal certification programs for arborists and
participation as adequate, which we assume may relate to the fact that trainings were not widely available across cities. Professional capacity
public consultation has become mandatory in many urban forestry ac­ building is therefore considered of high demand in the region, and we
tivities in public urban land (Gulsrud et al., 2018). However, for other argue that this could move from tree-focused to more system-level
stakeholders who did not share that view, there may be a lack of thinking.
awareness about this process, or they may simply not be required to Finally, this study has established a scale and analysis approach that
address public participation in their organizational mandates, or not be could be replicated and used in future studies to test the social and
capable to address them due to lack of capacity (i.e., personnel, budg­ geographical pathways that may influence stakeholder views on urban
eting, knowledge, and skills; Janse and Konijnendijk, 2007). Further forest governance and management. We also suggest more empirical
research is needed to investigate these distinct views, taking into research on the role of public participation across different urban forest
consideration specific contexts. Nevertheless, our results point out that management activities and contexts in the region, particularly in light of
LAC stakeholders recognize the important role of public participation in pressing urban environmental and social inequality issues, where there
urban forest management and governance. is a need to better understand how to strengthen urban forestry decision-
making and governance.

5.3. Limitations Author statement

Our study has some limitations. First, given our convenience Tahia Devisscher: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Curation,
recruitment procedure, our data suffered of sampling bias. While non- Analysis, Writing – Original Draft, Review & Editing, Visualization,
governmental organizations and private sector can influence why,

9
T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Project administration; Camilo Ordóñez-Barona: Conceptualization, Table A1

Methodology, Analysis, Writing – Original Draft, Review & Editing, Events used to generate the contact lists used to recruit survey respondents.
Visualization, Supervision; Cynnamon Dobbs: Conceptualization, Anal­ Round Event Location Date
ysis, Writing – Original Draft, Review & Editing; Mariana Dias Baptista:
1 First Latin American Forum on Urban Lima, Perú 7− 9 June
Methodology, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft, Review & Edit­ and Periurban Forests: “Foro 2017
ing, Visualization; Nuria Mónica Navarro: Data Curation, Analysis, latinoamericano y del caribe sobre
Writing – Original Draft; Luis Alberto Orozco Aguilar: Methodology, silvicultura urbana, arboricultura y
Writing – Original Draft; Jose Felix Cercas Perez: Data Curation, Anal­ paisajismo para bosques urbanos y
espacios verdes” http://www.fao.org/p
ysis; Yolanny Rojas Mancebo: Data Curation, Analysis; Francisco Javier eru/noticias/detail-events/es/c/
Escobedo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision. 892705/
2 Second Latin American Forum on Urban Bogotá, 5− 8
and Periurban Forests: “Segundo foro Colombia November
Declaration of Competing Interest latinoamericano y del caribe sobre 2019
bosque urbanos: silvicultura,
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare. arboricultura y áreas verdes”https://cos
mosjaveriana.wixsite.com/cosmos/eve
nts/2-foro-latinoamericano-y-del-caribe
Acknowledgment -sobre-bosques-urbanos

This work was supported by the National Socio-Environmental

Synthesis Center (SESYNC) under funding received from the National
Science FoundationDBI-1639145. TD was supported by the Banting
Postdoctoral Fellowship program (201709BPF-393653-294704) in part­
nership with the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
(SSHRC) of Canada. CO was supported by the Urban Trees, People, and Table A2
Reliability test for multi-rating scale on governance and management (section
Wildlife Linkage grant of the Australian Research Council (ARC;
2).
LP160100780) and by funding provided by the University of Toronto,
Canada. CD is supported by Fondecyt11190295 grant from the National At present, in the city I work in/with, there is/are… Mean SD
Research Academy (ANID). Special thanks to Dr Cecil Konijnendijk 1 a plan or strategy with clear visions and objectives 2.846 1.475
(University of British Columbia), Simone Borelli and Michela Conigliaro 2 an inventory of public trees (ideally georeferenced) 3.077 1.579
3 an Inventory of private trees (ideally georeferenced) 1.780 1.191
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Dr Tenley
4 political leaders that raise the profile of the urban forest and 2.462 1.352
Conway (University of Toronto), and Dr Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva trees in the community
Filho (University of São Paulo) for the support provided to this study. We 5 a list of appropriate species to plant 3.329 1.469
are grateful for the recommendations we received from two anonymous 6 a system to monitor urban forests long-term 2.143 1.346
reviewers, which have greatly improved the manuscript. 7 one team that coordinate decisions across departments 3.044 1.389
influencing public trees
8 clear ordinances/regulations for urban trees 3.077 1.455
Appendix A 9 research partnerships with research institutions aimed at 2.648 1.417
improving management of urban forests
10 adequate consultation and engagement with the community in 2.253 1.261
decisions related to urban forests
11 trust among residents towards management agencies 2.198 1.302
12 adequate budget to manage the urban forest 2.088 1.235
13 technical maintenance plans to maintain forest health and 2.758 1.385
manage risk (pruning, watering, fertilizing, etc.)
14 trained and certified human resources 2.692 1.339
15 sufficient education of the community about urban forests 2.109 1.167
16 plans to manage climate change-related hazards and other 2.132 1.327
disturbances affecting the urban forest
Average of all items 2.542 1.043
Cronbach alpha 0.951

Table A3
Reliability test for multi-rating scale on availability of educational opportunities
(section 3).
In the city where I work, there are… Mean SD

1. Certification programs for arborists 2.231 1.528

2. Conferences and workshops on urban forestry 3.066 1.482
3. Training on best practices 2.670 1.469
4. Higher education programs relevant to urban forestry 2.824 1.623
Average of all items 2.698 1.374
Cronbach alpha 0.866

Fig. A1. Responses collected through two rounds of online survey dissemina­
tion in 2019 (first round) and 2020 (second round).

10
T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Table A4
Results of analysis of associations between selected survey measures and stakeholder views about management and governance issues using survey data collected in
this study.
Measure Coefficient (Standard Error) 95 % Confidence Interval of coefficient

Multilinear regression model for the association between professional characteristics and management and governance scale
Language_Spanish − 0.08 (0.28) [-0.63, 0.47]
>10years work experience − 0.21 (0.29) [-0.79, 0.36]
ProfessionalDomain_government a 0.25 (0.29) [-0.23, 0.72]
ScaleofImplementation_municipal 1 0.24 (0.24) [-0.21, 0.68]
Multilinear regression model for the association between geographical characteristics and management and governance scale
a
CityPopulation_>1million NA NA
Bioregion_AndesNorth a 0.29 (0.37) [-0.34, 0.91]

Models adjusted for demographics, including age (>40 years), gender (female), and education (university degree) (see Methods section, main text); only unstan­
dardized comparable regression coefficients included.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, NA = not enough data.
a
Measures with complementary variables but only one variable shown (e.g., for City Population, extra variable of >5million, not shown).

Table A5
Results of analysis of associations between selected survey measures and stakeholder views about availability of educational opportunities using survey data collected
in this study.
Measure Coefficient (Standard Error) 95 % Confidence Interval of coefficient

Multilinear regression model for the association between professional characteristics and educational opportunities scale
Language_Spanish − 0.45 (0.32) [-1.08, 0.19]
>10years work experience 0.28 (0.34) [-0.39, 0.95]
1
ProfessionalDomain_government 0.72 (0.28)* [0.17, 1.28]
1
ScaleofImplementation_municipal 0.29 (0.26) [-0.21, 0.81]
Multilinear regression model for the association between geographical characteristics and educational opportunities scale
CityPopulation_>1million a NA NA
Bioregion_AndesNorth a 0.82 (0.37) [0.078, 1.57]

Models adjusted for demographics, including age (>40 years), gender (female), and education (university degree) (see Methods section, main text); only unstan­
dardized comparable regression coefficients included.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, NA = not enough data.
a
Measures with complementary variables but only one variable shown (e.g., for City Population, extra variable of >5million, not shown).

Table A6
List of all codes used in the qualitative analysis (section 6).
a
Question Assigned subcodes Code clusters

Creation of public policies; development of public policies; management documents; loss of value; more value; loss of
Strategy
institutional value; protected areas zoning
Increase operational capacity; training and capacity of personnel; professional associations; professionalization of the Operations - personnel capacity
field & training
More investment Operations – budgets
1 Changes in the last Generation of data; management of data; forest inventories Operations - data & monitoring
ten years More education; more research Education & Research
Implementation of strategy and
Monitoring of changes; creation of green areas
tools
Public participation Public participation
Make decisions together with other stakeholders; governance by many actors Coordination of actors
No changes; canopy cover increase; Other
Species conservation; public-private alliances; creation of public policies; development of public policies;
management documents; strengthen public policies; more value; better management; better governance; Strategy
communications plans
Increase operational capacity; training and capacity of personnel; professional associations; professionalization of the Operations - personnel capacity
field & training
More investment Operations – budgets
2. Priorities in the next Generation of data; management of data; forest inventories; dissemination of data Operations - data & monitoring
ten years More education; more research Education & Research
Monitoring of changes; creation of green areas; creation of gardens; planting native species; implementation of green
Implementation of strategy and
infrastructure plans; assign monetary value; better management implementation; apply best practices; use new
tools
technologies; plant the species selected
Public participation Public participation
Coordination policies at different levels of government Coordination policies
Make decisions together with other stakeholders; governance by many actors Coordination of actors
a
This refers to the ideas in Fig. 5.

11
T. Devisscher et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 67 (2022) 127441

Table A7
Selected inductive coding examples, indicating assigned code(s).
Question Verbatim data Assigned subcode Code clustersa Response
(s) ID

“En términos de paisajismo se ha comenzado a establecer una mayor conciencia en el sector More value Strategy
1. Changes in the
de la construcción. Se están destinando recursos para sienta de árboles y jardines que 50
last ten years More investment Operations – Budgets
permiten ampliar la cobertura verde y la conectividad ecológica a nivel urbano”
“Desde el ordenamiento territorial, Estructura Ecológica Principal y Complementaria, Management
Strategy
Inventarios, SIG y otros. Así como, planees de arbolado y planes maestros de silvicultura ha documents
1. Changes in the ido mejorando la conceptualización del arbolado y bosques urbanos (zonas de protección) y Forest inventories Operations - data &
15
last ten years su importancia en el aporte de los servicios ambientales, pero sobre todo en el tema de monitoring
cambio climático. Se ha desarrollado normatividad y a la par en algunas ciudades se hacen More value
Strategy
actividades de arbolado ordenado”
More value Strategy
“1. Promover la conceptualización legal del bosque urbano. 2. Contar con material vegetal
Implementation of
2. Priorities in the Nativo a nivel local que esté a disposición de las municipalidades para construcción de trama Species selection
strategy/tools 30
next ten years verde. 3. Recuperación de terrenos que son áreas de protección invadidos por asentamientos
Canopy cover
informales consolidados” Strategy
increase
Public
Public Participation
“1) La declaración de los árboles como patrimonio de la ciudad. 2) El empoderamiento de la Participation
2. Priorities in the
ciudadanía en el cuidado del arbolado urbano. 3) La implementación de más áreas verdes Create more green Implementation of 19
next ten years
que impliquen que como ciudad podamos cumplir con índice verde urbano” areas strategy/tools
More value Strategy
a
This refers to the ideas in Fig. 5.

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