Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Natural and the Civilized Man

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 born in Geneva in 1712
 was one of the 18th century's most important political thinkers
 His work focused on the relationship between human society and the individual, and contributed to the
ideas that would lead eventually to the French Revolution.
 His early work argued that the development of civilisation had actually led to a decrease in happiness,
and that humans should live instead in a state that was as close to nature as possible.
 The Social Contract, with its famous opening sentence 'Man is born free, and he is everywhere in
chains', stated instead that people could only experience true freedom if they lived in a civil society that
ensured the rights and well-being of its citizens.
 Being part of such a society involved submitting to the general will – a force that transcended
individuals and aimed to uphold the common good
 The concern that dominates Rousseau’s work is to find a way of preserving human freedom in a world
where human beings are increasingly dependent on one another for the satisfaction of their needs.
 Rousseau’s description of humans living in the pure state of nature differs from other philosophers such
as Hobbes.
 Hobbes, on the one hand, depicts natural man in a constant state of war against one another.
 Rousseau contests this notion by arguing that natural man would need complex thoughts such as
calculating events, using language, and recognizing the threats that other men pose.
 He believes that the natural man has limited needs and lacks any desire to dominate others.
 The natural man doesn’t have any dire needs outside of the basic means of self-preservation:
eating, sleeping, and reproducing.
 Natural man doesn’t feel the need to display attention to others, or dominate his competitors, or
use tools of deception. Men in the civilized society feels pressured by the constraints of others to
live up to a certain expectation and therefore are “inauthentic”. This gives him an urge to want to
be liked or adored by others for public attention

Man in State of Nature

Man in his state of nature is essentially an animal like any other, driven by two key motivating principles: pity
and self-preservation.
 Man in the state of nature exists without reason or the concept of good and evil.
 Man in the state of nature has few needs and, therefore, is essentially happy.
 Man in the state of nature against progress in civilization

Collective/Social Life
 The isolated human being, however, generally comes in contact with other people (and this is
inevitable).
 Individuals move out of the state of nature and with this, begin to form small groups or elementary
societies.
 This is the collective/social life. This contributes to the development of reason and eventually of
language
  However, Rousseau argues that the collective life necessarily results in the emergence and development
of a negative motivating principle for human actions: amour propre.
o Amour propre drives man to compare themselves to others (reflect on consumerism).
o This comparison also drives man to control and dominate their fellow human beings.
 This is to maximize their own happiness

o With the development of amour propre and progress in civilization, private property and division of
labor.
o Owner class control the workers and exploit them
o There is inequality guised under the veil of productivity and progress.
 This, for Rousseau, creates an unnatural moral inequality which becomes a permanent
feature of civil society

Social Contract
SOCIAL CONTRACT: THE ALTERNATIVE
o Change this inequality through the Social Contract
o The Social Contract opens with the famous statement: “Men are born free, yet everywhere are in
chains.”
o Civil society did not enforce the equality and individual liberty that were promised to the individual the
moment he entered into society.
o Rousseau believes that the only legitimate political authority is the authority consented to by all the
people, who have agreed to such government by entering into a social contract for the sake of their own
mutual preservation.
SOVEREIGN- The collective grouping of all people who by their consent enter into a civil society is
called the sovereign

Sovereign
o The sovereign as a whole expresses the general will of the people.
o The general will is the collective need of all to provide for the common good of all.
o And for him, the general will should be the basis of the laws of the state. The laws of the state, therefore,
must express the general will of the people

Ideal Man: Savage Man

ROUSSEAU’S IDEAL MAN: THE SAVAGE MAN
o He argues in his other book, Discourse, that the ideal man is the savage man.
o Society is a corrupting force that transforms natural man into a self-obsessed civilized man.
o Throughout the course of human history, society has improved human understanding but at the same
time created man to be more wicked. So, the ideal man, for Rousseau, is the savage man
o The savage man is a natural man who enjoys his freedom and acts spontaneously without thinking of
what others will say.
o The savage man depicts the true nature of man: man is naturally good.
 Hence, the state of nature is generally a peaceful, happy place made up of free,
independent men (which is the state of affairs Rousseau envisions to attain)
 “A civilized man lives always outside of himself who knows how to live only in the opinion of others; and
it is from others’ judgment alone that he draws the sentiment of his own existence.” (an existential motif
here)

The Moral Agent and the Development of Moral Character

Lawrence Kohlberg Carol Gilligan

 a professor at Harvard University  American psychologist who earned a
 began as a developmental psychologist and Master’s degree in Clinical psychology at
then moved to the field of education Radcliffe College
 was particularly well-known for his theory of  earned her PhD in social psychology at
moral development which he popularized Harvard.
through research studies at Harvard’s Center  was influenced both by Erik Erikson and
for Moral Education Lawrence Kohlberg
 interviewed seventy-two lower-and-middle-  “In contrast to the justice ethic described by
class white boys, presenting each with a moral Kohlberg, in which personal liberty and rights
dilemma: whether it would be permissible for are prime, Gilligan noted that women utilize
a poor man to steal medicine for his dying an ethic of caring, in which the moral
wife imperative is grounded in relationship with
 the children’s responses became basis of his and responsibility for one another
six-stage theory of moral development  while Kohlberg’s work on men is from the
perspective of justice, Gilligan works on
women from the perspective of care
Lawrence Kohlberg Lawrence Kohlberg

Pre-conventional level (self-focused)  Stage four (legalistic orientation) is

 individual judges morality strictly on the basis oriented by obedience to the rule or law
of consequences - fear of being punished for as one’s duty. There is a higher value in
bad actions, reward for good actions obeying the law than by simply seeking
 the behavior is bounded by threat and the approval of one's peers. By the time
rewards. individuals reach adulthood, they consider
society when making moral judgments
 The first stage (punishment orientation) following rules, doing one’s duty, and
- expects the child to behave according to respecting authority to ensure one’s
socially acceptable rules or norms because harmonious relationship with others
they are told to do so by some authority
figure like their parents, teachers, pastors or Post-conventional level (universal focused)
clergy and elders in the community  the focus is on the universal moral principles
- the child obeys the rule for fear of  this is the most challenging level as Morality is
punishment. judged in terms of abstract principles and not
by existing rules that govern society. Moral
 The second stage (pleasure orientation), and ethical choices rise above the laws of
 individual behaves in the right way society, and individual look within themselves
because by doing it one receives for the answers rather than basing moral
rewards. Decisions are made based on decisions on external sources of authority
the benefits that one can receive in  many people, however, according to
doing an action by following rules Kohlberg, never enter into this level of moral
Conventional level (group focused) development
 the focus is more societal relationship,
especially, on social conformity  The stage five (common good)
 the individuals are most concerned about the  is anchored on the understanding of
opinions of their peers and that their “good” social mutuality and genuine interest
behavior lies what will please the others in the welfare of others.
 There is a clear concern towards
 The third stage (peer and group approval) human rights than simply following
is characterized by a behavior which the law. The law is accepted or
seeks to do what will gain the approval of approved as long as it protects the
peers. The reactions of the others are common good of the people and the
somehow the basis for one’s behavior and inherent natural right of every
the decision to act. Living up to other’s individual. Law serves as the protector
expectation becomes a day-to-day norm of individual rights and not the other
and the basis for making moral decisions way around.
Lawrence Kohlberg

 The stage six (universal principles)

 is grounded on respect for universal
principle and the demands of
individual conscience
 when faced with a dilemma between
law and conscience, a person’s
conscience is followed
 behavior is directed by self-chosen
ethical principles that place high value
on justice, dignity and equality” of
individuals (“Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development”)
 it is a stage where conscience is
applied giving value to the dignity of
persons
Carol Gilligan Carol Gilligan

Kohlberg’s pre-conventional stage is for  an individual cannot live isolated from the others
for the self cannot sustain itself without the
Gilligan concern for survival
others.
 giving emphasis on “What’s the best for the  concern for others is just as equal to the concern
self” which certain element of selfishness of the self as the “self and other are
and dependence on others interdependent”
 the self is given priority and that anything that
can benefit the self is valued
 this is based on the principle that “one must
Conclusion
first be able to care responsibly for oneself” o Both Kohlberg and Gilligan’s theory suggest that
before the others moral development is not an overnight course
 but as the individual grows to maturity, he/she but a life-long process. It is something that a
realizes that there are others in which one has to moral agent should work on so that one’s moral
relate to form a community. In this moment, the character would grow and mature in wisdom to
transition happens when the self begins to see the expand one’s moral horizon from the self-serving
others as significant as one gets benefit from act to a conscience-based act, in Kohlberg, as well
relating with them as “Citizens” as from thinking what’s best for oneself to an
 with Kohlberg’s Conventional level, Gilligan ethics of care for Gilligan.
considers it goodness to others in which the
needs of others are put ahead of the self: “The o Both of their theories are helpful for us to realize
moral person is one who helps others; and take the level of our moral character and in a way give
responsibility of other’s needs” even at the extent us idea where we should grow more as moral
that one makes self-sacrifice. This phase shows agent.
individual making moral decisions for the sake of
others.

Kohlberg’s post-conventional stage is the

Ethics of Care for Gilligan
 the self sees it connectedness and equality with
others including a clear imperative to harm no
one. One takes responsibility for choices in which
projected consequences and personal intention
are the motivation for actions, rather than
concern for the reactions of others
 this phase focuses on the dynamics of
relationships through a new understanding of the
interconnection between other and self
 care becomes the self-chosen principle of a
judgment that remains psychological in its concern
with relationships and response but becomes
universal in its condemnation of exploitation and
hurt: “The ideal of care is thus an activity of
relationship, of seeing and responding to need,
Introduction to Ethics
 The most salient characteristic of ethics-by which I mean both philosophical morality (or morality, as I
will refer to it) and moral philosophy-is that it is grounded in reason and human experience.
 Ethics is related to religion, law, and etiquette

o Religion - a plethora of religions with distinct beliefs and practices

o Law-slavery, women’s right to suffrage
o Etiquette - determines whether the behavior is polite rather than behavior is right in a deeper
sense. Customs represent society's decisions about how we are to dress, greet one another, eat,
celebrate festivals, carry out social transactions, and dispose of the dead.

 Yet it can be immoral to disregard or flaunt etiquette. Example: Americans in a bikini in India ( not in
bathing suit but the insensitivity that's morally offensive)
 Oftentimes, our moral differences turn out to be rooted in worldviews, not in moral principles.
 For example, antiabortion and pro-choice advocates often agree that it is wrong to kill innocent persons
but differ on specifics. The antiabortion advocate may hold a religious view that states that the fetus has
an eternal soul and thus a right to life, while the pro-choice advocate may deny that anyone- let alone a
fetus - has a soul and maintain that only self-conscious, rational beings have a right to life.

Ethics
 moral philosophy as it is sometimes called, is the systematic endeavor to understand moral concepts
and justify moral principles and theories.
 undertakes to analyze such concepts as 'right,' 'wrong' 'permissible,' 'ought,'" 'good,' and 'evil' in their
moral contexts. Whereas much of philosophy is concerned with the knowledge of what is (for example,
metaphysics, philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, and philosophy of the mind
 concerned with action and practice.
 concerned with values-not what is, but what ought to be.

ACTION
Right (Permissible) or Wrong Not Permissible
"Right act"-act that is permissible (either optional or obligatory)
Optional Act- neither obligatory nor wrong to do. It is not one's duty to do it; nor is it one's duty not to do it.
Example: Getting married- because being married, in itself, is considered morally neutral, it is an optional act.
You may or may not.
Supererogatory act- They are not obligatory, and they exceed the requirements of morality. Example:
You may have an obligation to give a donation to strangers in dire need, but you are not obligated to sell your
house or car, let alone to become destitute yourself, in order to help them. To help such people by selling your
house or car or by becoming destitute yourself would be supererogatory.
Obligatory act- one that morality requires one to take, an act that is not permissible to refrain from
doing.
"Wrong act"- act that one has an obligatory or duty to refrain from
 Theories that place the emphasis on the nature of the act are called "deontological" (from the Greek
word for duty)- These theories hold that there is something inherently right or good about such acts as
truth-telling and promise-keeping and something inherently wrong or bad about such acts as lying and
promise-breaking.

Limitations of the law

 you can social malady and you can't enforce every desirable rule

The limitation of etiquette

 is that it doesn't get to the heart of what is of vital importance for personal and social existence. Whether
one eats with one's fingers seems unimportant compared with whether one is honest or trustworthy or
just.

The limitation of the religious injunctions

 rests on authority, and we are not always sure of or in agreement about the credentials of the
authority nor on how the authority would rule in ambiguous or new cases. Since religion is founded
not on reason but on revelation, you cannot use reason to convince someone who does not share your
religious views that you are the right ones.

Domains of Ethical Assessment

o Action
o Consequences
o Character
o Motive

Consequences

 Theories that focus primarily on consequences in determining moral rightness and wrongness are called
"teleological" ethical theories (from the Greek telos, meaning goal-directed). The most famous is
utilitarianism.

Character
  While some ethical theories emphasize principles of actions for themselves and some emphasize
principles involving consequences of actions, other theories, such as Aristotle's ethics, emphasize
character or virtue.
Aristotle: It is most important to develop virtuous character, for if and only if we have good people can we
ensure habitual right action.
Plato: It is important to the full assessment of ay action that the intention of the agent be taken into account

Motive

 practically all ethical systems, and especially Kant's system, accept the relevance of motive. It is
important to the full assessment of any action that the intention of the agent be take into account.
 Two acts may be identical, but one may be judged morally culpable and the other excusable. Example:
Consider John's pushing Joan off the ledge, causing her to break her leg. In situation A he is angry and
intends to harm her, but in situation B he sees a knife flying in her direction and intends to save her life.

Nonmoral vs. Immoral

Nonmoral - Deciding whether to wear a white shirt rather than a blue shirt is not normally a moral issue at all.
It's not within the scope of moral consideration.
Immoral- morally wrong thing to do.
 Not all value judgments are within the scope of moral considerations. When we say, "That is good" we
need to pay attention to the context, for we may mean either that an act is the most fitting one if we want
to reach our goal, or at an object described is beautiful or aesthetically satisfying, or speaking morally,
that an act is the morally correct deed.

o Moral differences are oftentimes rooted not in moral principles but Worldviews
On the State of Nature ( Thomas Hobbes )
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
 the greatest English political philosopher
 set forth the classic version of the idea that morality and politics arise out of a social contract
 wrote of his experience, "Unbeknownst to my mother at that time she gave birth to twins, myself and
fear. And fear has been my constant companion throughout life."
 lifetime was filled with the dangers of war, the invading Spanish Armada, the religious wars of Europe,
the Civil War in England.
 His political philosophy may be read as a cure against the fear and insecurity of people
desperately in need of peace and tranquility.
 was educated at Oxford University, and lived through an era of political revolutions as a scholar and
tutor (to the future Charles II)
 known today primarily for his masterpiece in political theory, Leviathan (1651), a book written
during the English civil wars (1642-1652), sometimes referred to as "the Great Rebellion, which pitted
the forces of monarchy (the Royalists) under Charles I against those of Parliament under Oliver
Cromwell.

Leviathan

 a book written during the English civil wars

 sometimes referred to as "the Great Rebellion”, which pitted the forces of monarchy (the Royalists)
under Charles I against those of Parliament under Oliver Cromwell.

 We cannot relax our guard, for everyone is constantly in fear of everyone else. In the anarchy the
prudent person concludes that it really is in all our self-interest to make a contract to keep to a minimal
morality of respecting human life, keeping covenants made and obeying the laws of the society

 This minimal morality, which Hobbes refers to as "the laws of nature is nothing more than a set of
maxims of prudence. In order to ensure that we all obey this covenant Hobbes proposes a strong
sovereign or "Leviathan to impose severe penalties on those who disobey the laws, for "covenants
without the sword are but words."

State of Nature
  Nature has made men so equal, in the faculties of the body, and mind is that though be found one man
sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker mind than another yet when all is reckoned
together, the difference between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man can thereupon
claim to himself any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he
 From this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our ends. And therefore if any
two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy. they become enemies, and in
the way to their end, which is principally the own conservation, and sometimes their delectation only,
endeavor to destroy, or subdue one another.
 And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man to reasonable, as anticipation; that
is, by force, or wiles, to master the persons of all men use so long, all he see no other power great
enough to endanger him.
 Hereby it is manifest that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe,
they are in that condition which is called war; and such a war, as is of every man against every man, For
war, consisteth not in battle only, or the act of fighting; but in a tract of time, wherein the will to contend
by battle is sufficiently known and therefore the notion of time, is to be considered in the nature of war;
as it is in the nature of weather.
 The nature of war, consisteth not in actual fighting; but in the known disposition therato during all the
time there is no assurance to the contrary. All other time is PEACE
 There is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain and consequently culture of the
earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea: no commodious building:
no instruments of moving, and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of
the earth; no account of time; no arts, no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and
danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short

Laws of Nature

 The passions that incline men to peace are fear of death; the desire of such things necessary to
commodious living; and a hope by their industry to obtain them. And reason suggested convenient
articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement These articles, are they, which otherwise
are called the Laws of Nature
1st Law: Seek peace
2nd Law: Lay down your rights in order to seek peace, provided that this can be done safely
3rd Law: Keep your covenants, where covenants are the most important vehicle through which rights are laid
down

Summary
o So morality is a form of social control.
o More specifically morality seems to have these five purposes:
1. To keep society from falling apart.
2. To ameliorate human suffering.
3. To promote human flourishing.
4. To resolve conflicts of interest in just and orderly ways
5. To assign praise and blame, reward the good and punish the guilty.
o Government is better than civil war (even the most oppressive govt)
o What would life be like in a state of nature?
 Without government/stateless nation (mere nation)

o He argues against anarchism, but rather for a strong state

o Very pessimistic. Totalitarian ruler is fine (Leviathan)