CHAP. 4.

A TOUR OF THE CELL

 The Fundamental Units of Life

 All organisms are made of cells

 The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive
 Cell structure is correlated to cellular function
 All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
 Key Concepts

 Biologists use microscopes & the tools of biochemistry to

study cells
 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that
compartmentalise their functions
 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the
nucleus & carried out by the ribosomes
 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic & performs
metabolic functions in the cell
 Mitochondria & chloroplasts change energy from one form to
another
 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibres that organises structure
& activities in the cell
 Extracellular components & connections between cells help co-
ordinate cellular activities
Biologists use microscopes and the tools of
biochemistry to study cells
 Microscopy

 Scientists use microscopes

(현미경) to visualize cells too
small to see with the naked eye
 3 important parameters of
microscopy
 Magnification (배율), the ratio of
an object’s image size to its real
size
 Resolution (해상력), the measure
of the clarity of the image, or the
minimum distance of two
distinguishable points
 Contrast (대비), visible differences
in parts of the sample
Light Microscope (LM) vs. Electron Microscope (EM)

 Light microscope (광학현미경)

 Visible light is passed through a specimen
& then through glass lenses
 Lenses refract (bend) the light, so that the
image is magnified
 LMs can magnify effectively to about
1,000 times the size of the actual
specimen
 Various techniques enhance contrast &
enable cell components to be stained or
labeled
 Most subcellular structures are too small
to be resolved by an LM
 Electron microscope (전자현미경)
 Scanning electron microscopes
(SEMs) (주사전자현미경) focus a beam
of electrons onto the surface of a
specimen, providing images that look 3-D
 Transmission electron microscopes
(TEMs) (투과전자현미경) focus a beam
of electrons through a specimen. TEMs
are used mainly to study the internal
structure of cells
 Recent Advances in LM

 Confocal microscopy & deconvolution microscopy provide sharper images

of 3-dimensional tissues and cells
 New techniques for labeling cells improve resolution
 Cell Fractionation

 Cell fractionation (세포분획) takes

cells apart & separates the major
organelles from 1 another
 Centrifuges fractionate cells into their
component parts
 Cell fractionation enables scientists to
determine the functions of organelles
 Biochemistry & cytology (세포학) help
correlate cell function with structure
Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that
compartmentalise their functions
 The basic structural & functional  Basic features of all cells
unit of every organism is 1 of 2  Plasma membrane (원형질막)
types of cells  Semifluid substance called
 Prokaryotic cells (원핵세포) cytosol (세포질)
 Bacteria (세균)  Chromosomes (염색체) (carry
 Archaea (고세균)
genes)
 Ribosomes (make proteins)
 Eukaryotic cells (진핵세포)
 Protists (원생생물)
 Fungi (균류)
 Animals
 Plants
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

 Prokaryotic cells (원핵세포) are  Eukaryotic cells (진핵세포) are

characterized by having characterized by having
 No nucleus (핵)  DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
 DNA in an unbound region called the membranous nuclear envelope (핵막)
nucleoid (핵양체)  Membrane-bound organelles
 No membrane-bound organelles (세포  Cytoplasm in the region between the
내 소기관) plasma membrane & nucleus
 Cytoplasm (세포질) bound by the  Eukaryotic cells are generally much
plasma membrane larger than prokaryotic cells
 Plasma Membrane

 The plasma membrane is a selective  Metabolic requirements set upper

barrier that allows sufficient passage limits on the size of cells
of oxygen, nutrients & waste to service  The surface area to volume ratio of a
the volume of every cell cell is critical
 The general structure of a biological  As the surface area increases by a
membrane is a double layer of factor of n2, the volume increases by a
phospholipids factor of n3
 Small cells have a greater surface
area relative to volume
 A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
Animal Cell vs. Plant Cell
 A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into
organelles
 Plant & animal cells have most of the same organelles
The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in
the nucleus & carried out by the ribosomes
 The Nucleus: Information Central

 The nucleus (핵) contains most of the cell’s

genes
 The nuclear envelope (핵막) encloses the
nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
(세포질)
 The nuclear membrane is a double
membrane with a lipid bilayer
 Nuclear pores (핵공) regulate the entry &
exit of molecules from the nucleus
 The shape of the nucleus is maintained by
the nuclear lamina (핵막층), which is
composed of protein
 In the nucleus, DNA is organized into
chromosomes (염색체)
 Each chromosome is composed of a single
DNA molecule associated with proteins
 The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are
together called chromatin (염색질)
 Chromatin condenses to form discrete
chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide
 The nucleolus (인) is located within the
nucleus & is the site of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) synthesis
 Ribosomes: Protein Factories

 Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA & protein

 Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations
 In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
 On the outside of the ER or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic
& performs metabolic functions in the cell
 Components of the endomembrane system (내막계)
 Nuclear envelope (핵막)
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (소포체)
 Golgi apparatus (골지체)
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles (액포)
 Plasma membrane (원형질막)
 These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by
vesicles (소낭)
 The ER: Biosynthetic Factory

 The ER (소포체) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
 The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
 Smooth ER (할면소포체)
 Llacks ribosomes
 Synthesizes lipids
 Metabolizes carbohydrates
 Detoxifies drugs & poisons
 Stores calcium ions
 Rough ER (조면소포체)
 Surface is studded with
ribosomes
 Has bound ribosomes, which
secrete glycoproteins (당단백질)
 Distributes transport vesicles
(수송소포), proteins surrounded
by membranes
 Is a membrane factory for the cell
 The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping & Receiving Center

 The Golgi apparatus (골지체) consists of flattened membranous sacs

called cisternae
 Functions of the Golgi apparatus
 Modifies products of the ER
 Manufactures certain macromolecules
 Sorts & packages materials into transport vesicles
 Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

 A lysosome is a membranous sac of

hydrolytic enzymes that can digest
macromolecules
 Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze
proteins, fats, polysaccharides &
nucleic acids
 Lysosomal enzymes work best in the
acidic environment inside the
lysosome
 Some types of cell can engulf another
cell by phagocytosis (식세포작용);
this forms a food vacuole (식포)
 A lysosome fuses with the food
vacuole & digests the molecules
 Lysosomes also use enzymes to
recycle the cell’s own organelles &
macromolecules, a process called
autophagy (자가소화작용)
 Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

 A plant cell or fungal cell may

have 1 or several vacuoles
(액포), derived from ER & Golgi
apparatus
 Food vacuoles (식포) are formed
by phagocytosis
 Contractile vacuoles
(수축포), found in many
freshwater protists (원생생물),
pump excess water out of cells
 Central vacuoles (중심액포),
found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds & water
 The Endomembrane System: A Review

 The endomembrane system is a complex & dynamic player in the

cell’s compartmental organisation
Mitochondria & chloroplasts change energy from
one form to another
 Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that
uses oxygen to generate ATP
 Chloroplasts (엽록체), found in plants & algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis (광합성)
 Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles
 The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria &
Chloroplasts: The Endosymbiont theory

 Mitochondria & chloroplasts have

similarities with bacteria
 Enveloped by a double membrane
 Contain free ribosomes &d circular
DNA molecules
 Grow & reproduce somewhat
independently in cells
 An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells
engulfed a non-photosynthetic
prokaryotic cell, which formed an
endosymbiont (세포내 공생)
relationship with its host
 The host cell & endosymbiont merged
into a single organism, a eukaryotic
cell with a mitochondrion
 At least 1 of these cells may have
taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote,
becoming the ancestor of cells that
contain chloroplasts
 Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

 Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

 They have a smooth outer membrane & an inner membrane folded into
cristae
 The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane space and
mitochondrial matrix (미토콘드리아 기질)
 Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix
 Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP
 Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

 Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes &

other molecules that function in photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts are found in leaves & other green organs of plants and in
algae
 Chloroplast structure includes
 Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum
 Stroma (기질), the internal fluid
 The chloroplast is 1 of a group of plant organelles, called plastids (색소체)
 Peroxisomes: Oxidation

 Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single

membrane
 Peroxisomes produce H2O2 & convert it to water
 Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different functions
 How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is still unknown
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibres that
organises structure & activities in the cell
 The cytoskeleton (세포골격) is a network of fibers extending throughout the
cytoplasm
 It organizes the cell’s structures & activities, anchoring many organelles
 It is composed of 3 types of molecular structures
 Microtubules (미세소관)
 Microfilaments (미세섬유)
 Intermediate filaments (중간섬유)
 Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support & Motility

 The cytoskeleton helps to support

the cell & maintain its shape
 It interacts with motor proteins
(운동단백질) to produce motility
 Inside the cell, vesicles can travel
along “monorails” provided by the
cytoskeleton
 Recent evidence suggests that the
cytoskeleton may help regulate
biochemical activities
 Components of the Cytoskeleton

 Microtubules (미세소관) are the

thickest of the three components
of the cytoskeleton
 Microfilaments (미세섬유), also
called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
 Intermediate filaments
(중간섬유) are fibers with
diameters in a middle range
 Microtubules

 Microtubules are hollow rods

about 25 nm in diameter & about
200 nm to 25 microns long
 Functions of microtubules
 Shaping the cell
 Guiding movement of organelles
 Separating chromosomes during
cell division
 Centrosomes & Centrioles

 In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome (중심체) near the
nucleus
 The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
 In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles (중심립), each with
nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring
 Cilia & Flagella

 Microtubules control the beating of

cilia (섬모) & flagella (편모),
locomotor appendages of some cells
 Cilia & flagella differ in their beating
patterns
 Cilia & flagella share a common
structure
 A core of microtubules sheathed
by the plasma membrane
 A basal body (기저체) that
anchors the cilium or flagellum
 A motor protein called dynein,
which drives the bending
movements of a cilium or flagellum
 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)

 Microfilaments are solid rods about 7

nm in diameter, built as a twisted
double chain of actin subunits
 The structural role of microfilaments is
to bear tension, resisting pulling forces
within the cell
 They form the cortex just inside the
plasma membrane to help support the
cell’s shape
 Bundles of microfilaments make up the
core of microvilli of intestinal cells
 Microfilaments that function in cellular
motility contain the protein myosin in
addition to actin
 In muscle cells, thousands of actin
filaments are arranged parallel to 1
another
 Thicker filaments composed of myosin
interdigitate with the thinner actin
fibers
 Intermediate Filaments

 Intermediate filaments range in

diameter from 8–12 nanometers,
larger than microfilaments but
smaller than microtubules
 They support cell shape & fix
organelles in place
 Intermediate filaments are more
permanent cytoskeleton fixtures
than the other 2 classes
Extracellular components & connections between
cells help co-ordinate cellular activities
 Most cells synthesise & secrete materials that are external to the
plasma membrane
 These extracellular structures include
 Cell walls of plants
 The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
 Intercellular junctions
 Cell Walls of Plants

 The cell wall (세포벽) is an

extracellular structure in plant cells
 Prokaryotes, fungi & some protists
also have cell walls
 The cell wall protects the plant cell,
maintains its shape & prevents
excessive uptake of water
 Plant cell walls are made of cellulose
fibers embedded in other
polysaccharides & protein
 Plant cell walls may have multiple
layers
 Primary cell wall (1차 세포벽):
relatively thin & flexible
 Middle lamella (중간층): thin layer
between primary walls of adjacent cells
 Secondary cell wall (2차 세포벽) (in
some cells): added between the
plasma membrane & the primary cell
wall
 Plasmodesmata (원형질 연락사) are
channels between adjacent plant cells
 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

 Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular
matrix (ECM) (세포외 기질)
 The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans &
fibronectin
 ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called
integrins
 Functions of the ECM
 Support
 Adhesion
 Movement
 Regulation
 Cell Junctions

 Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or

organ systems often adhere, interact &
communicate through direct physical
contact
 Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
 In plant cells
 Plasmodesmata (원형질 연락사) are
channels that perforate plant cell walls
 Through plasmodesmata, water & small
solutes (+ proteins & RNA) can pass from
cell to cell
 In animal cells
 At tight junctions (밀착연접), membranes
of neighboring cells are pressed together,
preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
 Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten
cells together into strong sheets
 Gap junctions (간극연접) (communicating
junctions) (소통연접) provide cytoplasmic
channels between adjacent cells
 The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than
the Sum of Its Parts
 Cells rely on the integration of structures & organelles in order to function
 For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy bacteria involves the whole
cell, coordinating components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes &
plasma membrane