Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

MODULE 2: SURFACE NDT METHODS

Liquid Penetrant Testing
Introduction
Penetrate inspection utilizes the natural accumulation of a fluid around a discontinuity to create a
recognizable indication of a crack or other surface openings.
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive evaluation (NDE)
methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, which are its relative ease of use and its
flexibility. The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw
by capillary action. This method is an inexpensive and convenient technique for surface defect inspection.
The limitations of the liquid penetrant technique include the inability to inspect subsurface flaws and a loss
of resolution on porous materials.
Liquid penetrant testing is largely used on nonmagnetic materials for which magnetic particle
inspection is not possible. Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the following; metals
(aluminium, copper, steel, titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials, rubber, plastics. Liquid penetrant
inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the sample. Some of these flaws are listed
below; fatigue cracks, quench cracks grinding cracks, overload and impact fractures, porosity, laps seams,
pin holes in welds, lack of fusion or braising along the edge of the bond line
Principle
LPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry surface-
breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping, spraying, or brushing.
After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed, and developer is applied.
The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw where a visible indication becomes visible to the
inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white light, depending upon the type of dye used -
fluorescent or non-fluorescent (visible).

Figure: Principle of liquid penetrant test

Testing Procedure for penetrant testing

1. Pre-cleaning:
the test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil grease or any loose scale that could either keep
penetrant out of defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods may include solvents,
alkaline cleaning steps, vapour degreasing, or media blasting. The end goal of this step is a clean surface
where any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of contamination.
2. Application of Penetrant: The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The
penetrant is allowed time to soak into any flaws (generally 10 to 30 minutes). The soap time mainly depends
upon the material being testing and the size of flaws sought. As expected, smaller flaws require a longer
penetration time. Due to their incompatible one must be careful not to apply visible red dye penetrant to a
sample that may later be inspected with fluorescent penetrant.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

3. Excess Penetrant Removal:

The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. Removal method is controlled by the type of
penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable, or hydrophilic post
emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest sensitivity level, and chemically
interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water spray. When using solvent remover and
lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on the test surface directly, because this can the remove
the penetrant from the flaws. This process must be performed under controlled conditions so that all
penetrant on the surface is removed (background noise), but penetrant trapped in real defects remains in
place.
4. Application of Developer: After excess penetrant has been removed a white developer is applied to the
sample. Several developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, water
suspendible, and water soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one can’t use
water-soluble or suspedible developer with water-washable penetrant), and by inspection conditions. When
using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder the sample must be dried prior to the application,
while soluble and suspendible developers are applied with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD
is commercially available in aerosol spray cans, and may employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant
that is a combination of the two. Developer should form a now thin, even coating on the surface.
The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication, a process
similar to the action of blotting paper. Any coloured stains indicate the positions and types of defects on the
surface under inspection.
5. Inspection:
The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot candles is typical) for visible dye
penetrant. Ultra violet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity (1000 micro-watts per centimetre squared is
common), along with low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot candles) for fluorescent penetrant
examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after a 10 minute development time. This time
delay allows the bloating action to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for indication formation
when using visible dye, but this should not be done when using fluorescent penetrant. Also of concern, if
one waits too long after development the indications me “bleed out” such that interpretation is hindered.

6. Post cleaning:
The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects (if found), especially if post-
inspection coating processes are scheduled.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

Penetrant testing method:

1. Water washable method:
In this method all of the materials used are water soluble. Following the initial cleaning and drying process,
the penetrant applied shall be a water based fluid. Use of large volume of water would require facilities for
adequate draining and disposal of the rinse water.
2. Post-Emulsifiable Method:
This method is a combination of solvent and water based inspections. Both hydrophilic and lipophilic
emulsifiers may be used in this method. The advantage of this method is that solvent penetrants that may
require for some parts may be removed by water.
3. Solvent removal method:
This method is an oil-based inspection process. Penetrant removal must be accomplished by a hand wiping
the part with a rag dampened with solvent. Solvent technique is most often applied for the inspection of
either a few small parts or for localised inspection.
Penetrant Testing Materials and its types:
The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene and whiting first used by
railroad inspectors near the turn of the 20th century. Today's penetrants are carefully formulated to produce
the level of sensitivity desired by the inspector. To perform well, a penetrant must possess a number of
important characteristics. A penetrant must:
Ø Spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide complete and even coverage.
Ø Be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action
Ø Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
Ø Remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying and developing steps.
Ø Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
Ø Not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.

1. Penetrants:
A fluid (usually a liquid but can be a gas) which possesses unique properties that render it highly capable of
entering small openings, a characteristic which makes this fluid especially suitable for use in the detection of
surface discontinuities which may be present.

a. Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:
Ø Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants
Ø Type 2 - Visible Penetrants
Fluorescent penetrants contain two or more dyes that fluoresce when excited by ultraviolet (UV-A)
radiation (also known as black light). Since FPI is performed in a darkened environment, and the excited
dyes emit brilliant yellow-green light that contrasts strongly against the dark background, this material is
more sensitive to small defects.
Visible penetrants are typically red in colour, and represent the lowest sensitivity

b. Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrantfrom the part. The
four methods are listed below:
Ø Method A - Water Washable
Ø Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
Ø Method C - Solvent Removable
Ø Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

Water washable (Method A) penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing with water alone. These
penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it possible to wash the penetrantfrom the part
surface with water alone. Water washable penetrants are sometimes referred to as self-emulsifying
systems.
Post-emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

In post-emulsifiers, lipophilic systems (Method B), the penetrant is oil soluble and interacts with the
oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible.
Post-emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems (Method D), use an emulsifier that is a water soluble
detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the part with a water wash.
Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a solvent to remove the penetrant from the part.

c. Penetrants are then classified based on the strength or detectability of the indication that is produced
for a number of very small and tight fatigue cracks. The five sensitivity levels are shown below:
Ø Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity
Ø Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
Ø Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
Ø Level 3 - High Sensitivity
Ø Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
The major US government and industry specifications currently rely on the US Air Force Materials
Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base to classify penetrants into one of the five sensitivity
levels. This procedure uses titanium and Inconel specimens with small surface cracks produced in low
cycle fatiguebending to classify penetrant systems. The brightness of the indication produced is measured
using a photometer. The sensitivity levels and the test procedure used can be found in Military Specification
MIL-I-25135 and Aerospace Material Specification 2644, Penetrant Inspection Materials.
An interesting note about the sensitivity levels is that only four levels were originally
planned. However, when some penetrants were judged to have sensitivities significantly less than most
others in the level 1 category, the ½ level was created. An excellent historical summary of the development
of test specimens for evaluating the performance of penetrant materials can be found in the following
reference.

2. Developers:
The role of the developer is to pull that trapped penetrant material out of defects and spread it out on the
surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector. The fine developer particles both reflect and refract the
incident ultraviolet light, allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient
fluorescence. The developer also allows more light to be emitted through the same mechanism. This is why
indications are brighter than the penetrant itself under UV light. Another function that some developers
perform is to create a white background so there is a greater degree of contrast between the indication and
the surrounding background.
The types of developers are shown in table.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

3. Emulsifiers:
When removal of the penetrant from a defect due to over-washing of the part is a concern, a post
emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. Post emulsifiable penetrants require separate emulsifiers to break
the penetrant down and make it water-washable. Most penetrant inspection specifications classify penetrant
systems into four methods of excess penetrant removal.
Ø Method A - Water Washable
Ø Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
Ø Method C - Solvent Removable
Ø Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

4. Test Block:
Aluminium and steel blocks are used in quality control of penetrants testing materials. The test blocks are
prepared to rigid specifications as stated in the codes. The test blocks are used for checking the qualities of
penetrants, emulsifiers and developers for checking the sensitivity, the suspected or faulty penetrant is
applied on one half of the surface of the test block and the standard penetrant is applied to the remaining half
of the surface.

Advantages:
Ø The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities
Ø The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and non-metallic, magnetic and non magnetic,
and conductive and non conductive materials may be inspected
Ø Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost
Ø Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected
Ø Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation of
the flaw
Ø Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable
Ø Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive

Disadvantages:
Ø Only surface breaking defects can be detected
Ø Only materials with a relatively non porous surface can be inspected
Ø Pre cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects
Ø Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapour blasting must be removed prior to LPI
Ø The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected
Ø Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity
Ø Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled
Ø Post cleaning of acceptable parts of materials is required

Application:
Ø Chemical and pressure vessel sand boiler
Ø Penstock pipes, atomic reactor, oil refining equipment
Ø Aircraft space and ship structures
Ø In medical applications
Ø Non destructive testing for concrete structures

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)

Introduction:
Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials (ferromagnetic materials) which can be easily
magnetised. This method is capable of detecting flaws open-to-surface and just below the surface.
Ferromagnetic materials include most of Iron, nickel and cobalt alloys and many of the precipitation-
hardening steels such as 17-4 PH etc.
Principle:
Magnetic particle testing process used for detecting surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in
ferroelectric materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic
field into the part.
The reason we use this test is to find small defects in objects before they become bigger defects and cause
serious problems. In magnetic particle inspection, a magnet or electrical current is used to establish a
magnetic field in the object. Iron filings are then dusted on to the surface of the object. The filings should
align along the magnetic lines of force. If a crack or other defect is present, the magnetic lines of force will
be disrupted and the magnetic particles will cluster along the edges of the flaw.
The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be inspected.
If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage field. After the component
has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the
magnetised part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible
indication that the inspector can detect.

Theory of Magnetism
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be considered as a
combination of two non-destructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual testing.
Consider the case of a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any place that a
magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a magnetic line of force exits
the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.

Fig b : Magnetic lines of forces and flux leakage

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

When a bar magnet is broken in the centre of its length, two complete bar magnets with magnetic
poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not broken completely in two, a
north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the North Pole and re-
enters at the South Pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the small air gap created by the
crack because the air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the
field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus is called a flux leakage field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to the cluster not
only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster of
particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.

Procedure used for testing a component:

1. Surface preparation of component before testing:
Loose rust and scale should be removed from the component to prevent contamination of the ink. On painted
parts, the paint should be removed locally so as to provide adequate contact areas for the current flow.

2. Initial demagnetization:
It is advisable to remove the residual magnetism in order to avoid false indications.

3. Decreasing and cleaning:

The component should be thoroughly cleaned before testing, Because adhering grease and dirt can mask
defects and also contaminate the ink.

4. Magnetization of the component:

It is necessary to choose suitable operating values of electrical parameters to obtained optimum
magnetization of the part being inspected.

5. Application of magnetic principle:

There are two classes of magnetic particles available depending upon the vehicle or carry agent used. In the
wet method, particles used a liquid vehicle and in dry method, particle are carried by air.

6. Viewing:
The black or red paste or powder indication are viewed under proper illumination

7. Marking of defects:
All relevant indication should be marked after allowing the ink to drain.

8. Demagnetization:
Demagnetization can only be accomplished totally when a material is heated to approximately 103 Removal
of ink from the components.

9. Removal of ink from the components

The ink is removed by using any solvent.

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force:

Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:
Ø They seek the path of least resistance between opposite magnetic poles. In a single bar magnet as
shown to the right, they attempt to form closed loops from pole to pole.
Ø They never cross one another.
Ø They all have the same strength.
Ø The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties:

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

Dry Particle Inspection (Dry Magnetic particle Testing)

In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles are dusted onto the surface of the test object
as the item is magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on rough
surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half wave DC current creates a
pulsating magnetic field that provides mobility to the powder. The primary applications for dry powders are
unground welds and rough as-cast surfaces.
Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow subsurface cracks. Dry particle with half wave
DC is the best approach when inspecting for lack of root penetration in welds of thin materials. Half wave
DC with prods and dry particles is commonly used when inspecting large castings for hot tears and cracks.

Fig: Dry particle testing

Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles

1. Prepare the part surface
The surface should be relatively clean but this is not as critical as it is with liquid penetrant
inspection. The surface must be free of grease, oil or other moisture that could keep particles from
moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be
left in place with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a
nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating
(such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.

2. Apply the magnetizing force

Use permanent magnets, an electromagnetic yoke, prods, a coil or other means to establish the
necessary magnetic flux
.
3. Dust on the dry magnetic particles
Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles
.
4. Gently blow off the excess powder
With the magnetizing force still applied, remove the excess powder from the surface with a few
gentle puffs of dry air. The force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles
but not strong enough to dislodge particle shield by a magnetic flux leakage field

5. Terminate the magnetizing force

If the magnetic flux is being generated with an electro-magnet or an electromagnetic field
the magnetizing forces should be terminated. If permanent magnets are being used then they can be
left in place.

6. Inspect for indications

Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

Wet Particle Inspection (Wet Magnetic Particles Testing)

Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection is more commonly known as wet magnetic particle
inspection. It involves applying the particles while they are suspended in a liquid carrier. Wet magnetic
particle inspection is most commonly performed using a stationary, wet, horizontal inspection unit but
suspensions are also available in spray cans for use with an electromagnetic yoke.
A wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection.
Ø All of the surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a relatively uniform
layer of particles.
Ø The liquid carrier provides mobility to the particles for an extended period of time, which allows
enough particles to float to small leakage fields to form a visible indication
Therefore, wet inspection is considered best for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth surfaces.
On rough surfaces, however, the particles(which are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the
surface valleys and lose mobility, rendering them less effective than dry powders under these conditions.

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions

1. Prepare the part surface

Just as is required with dry particle inspections, the surface should be relatively clean. The surface
must be free of grease, oil and other moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the
surface and preventing the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will
reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results. Specifications often
allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max
(0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt,
paint, rust or scale must be removed.

2. Apply the suspension

The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the surface of the part. Usually, the stream
of suspension is diverted from the part just before the magnetizing field is applied.

3. Apply the magnetizing force

The magnetizing force should be applied immediately after applying the suspension of
magnetic particles. When using a wet horizontal inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three
short busts (1/2 second) which helps to improve particle mobility.

4. Inspect for indications

Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered. Surface discontinuities will produce a
sharp indication. The indications from subsurface flaws will be less defined and lose definition as
depth increases.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

Suspension Liquids
Suspension liquids used in the wet magnetic particle inspection method can be either a well refined
light petroleum distillate or water containing additives. Petroleum-based liquids are the most desirable
carriers because they provided good wetting of the surface of metallic parts. However, water-based carriers
are used more because of low cost, low fire hazard, and the ability to form indications quicker than solvent-
based carriers. Water-based carriers must contain wetting agents to disrupt surface films of oil that may exist
on the part and to aid in the dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier. The wetting agents create
foaming as the solution is moved about, so anti-foaming agents must be added. Also, since water
promotes corrosion in ferrous materials, corrosion inhibitors are usually added as well.
Petroleum based carriers are primarily used in systems where maintaining the proper particle
concentration is a concern. The petroleum based carriers require less maintenance because they evaporate at
a slower rate than the water-based carriers. Therefore, petroleum based carriers might be a better choice for
a system that gets only occasional use or when regularly adjusting the carrier volume is undesirable. Modern
solvent carriers are specifically designed with properties that have flash points above 200oF and keep
noxious vapors low. Petroleum carriers are required to meet certain specifications such as AMS 2641.

Fig: Suspension liquid in Wet Particle Inspection

Advantages of MPT:
Ø Will detect surface and near sub-surface defects.
Ø Can detect flaws filled with contaminants e.g. oxide or non metallic inclusions.
Ø Sensitivity of testing can be specified and checked.
Ø Some inspection formats are extremely portable and low cost.
Ø Rapid inspection with immediate results.
Ø Indications are visible to the inspector directly on the specimen surface.
Ø Can detect defects that have been smeared over.
Ø Can inspect parts with irregular shapes (external splines, crankshafts, connecting rods, etc.)

Disadvantages of MPT :
Ø This method only applied to ferromagnetic materials (Eg: Steel, cast iron)
Ø Paint thicker than about 0.005" must be removed before inspection
Ø Post cleaning and post demagnetization is often necessary
Ø Maximum depth sensitivity is typically quoted as 0.100" (deeper under perfect conditions)
Ø Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important
Ø Will not detect deep internal flaws
Ø High current applied to component may cause damage
Ø Components usually have to be demagnetised.

Applications of MPT:
Ø Chemicals and pressure vessel sand boiler
Ø Penstock pipes, atomic reactor, oil refining equipment
Ø Aircraft, space and ship structures

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

Continuous and residual Magnetization Methods

In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic particles can either be applied to the component while
the magnetizing force is applied, or after it has been stopped.
Continuous magnetization describes the technique where the magnetizing force is applied and
maintained while the magnetic particles are dusted or flowed onto the surface of the component. In a wet
horizontal testing unit, the application of the particles is stopped just before the magnetizing force is applied;
but, since particles are still flowing over and covering the surface, this is considered
continuous magnetization
Residual magnetization describes the technique where the magnetizing force is applied to
magnetize the component and then stopped before applying the magnetic particles. Only the residual field of
the magnetized component is used to attract magnetic particles and produce an indication.
The continuous technique is generally chosen when maximum sensitivity is required because it has
two distinct advantages over the residual technique.
Ø First, the magnetic flux will be highest when current is flowing and therefore leakage fields will also be
strongest. Field strength in a component depends primarily on two variables: the applied magnetic field
strength and the permeability of the test object.
Viewing the upper right portion of
the hysteresis loop below, it is evident that
the magnetic flux will be the strongest
when the magnetizing force is applied. If
the magnetizing force is strong enough,
the flux density will reach the point of
saturation. When the magnetizing force is
removed, the flux density will drop to
the retentivity point. The two gray traces
show the paths the flux density would
follow if the magnetizing force was
applied and removed at levels below that
required to reach saturation. It can be seen
that the flux density is always highest
while the magnetizing current is applied.
This is independent of the permeability of
Fig: Residual Magnetism a material.
However, the permeability of the material is very important. High permeability materials do not retain a
strong magnetic field so flux leakage fields will be extremely weak or non-existent when the magnetizing
force is removed. Therefore, materials with high magnetic permeability are not suited for inspection using
the residual technique.
Ø The second advantage of the continuous technique is that when current is used to generate
the magnetizing force, it can provide added particle mobility. Alternating or pulsed direct current will
cause the particles to vibrate and move slightly on the surface of the part. This movement allows
the particles to travel to leakage sites. More particles mean brighter indications compared to those
formed using the residual technique.

One disadvantage of the continuous method is that heating of the component occurs when using
direct magnetization For example, when prods are used, they may create areas of localized heating when the
continuous technique is used. This may be acceptable on components that will be further processed
(removing this condition), but machined or in-service components may be adversely affected by this
condition. While generally not recommended, the residual technique does have its uses. It is commonly used
in automated inspection systems to inspect materials with high retentivity. To speed throughput, automated
systems often magnetize the parts and then submerge them in an agitated magnetic particle bath or pass
them through a spray station. Closely controlled automated systems provided good results using the
residual magnetism technique.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 2: Surface NDT Methods

Demagnetization and its methods

Why demagnetizing?
The demagnetization of ferromagnetic parts in industry is becoming more and more a necessary process.
The subsequent processing of demagnetized parts offers decisive advantages in many areas and it improves
the quality of the final products (goto application areas).Completely demagnetized parts remain
demagnetized over very long periods of time when properly handled, stored and transported, without the
effect of significant outer magnetic fields.

How to demagnetize?
Ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized by the following three methods:
1. Heating over Curie temperature (the Curie temperature is alloy dependent. For industrial steels it is
about 500°C to 800°C and initiates conversion from Ferromagnetism to Paramagnetism).
2. Vibrations (reorientation of magnetic domains due to vibration energy).
3. Polarity reversal through decaying alternating magnetic field for the distribution of the magnetic
domain magnetization direction (in most cases the method of choice).

Degaussing
Degaussing is another term for demagnetizing. The word degaussing is often used in relation with hard drive
erasing machines (also called degaussers) or in a completely different application. for naval degaussing
stations. Such stations are used for demagnetizing whole ships and/or submarines. In the context of
industrial applications, the term demagnetization or demagnetizer is more commonly used.

Demagnetization with decaying alternating field

This demagnetization technique is characterized by an alternating magnetic field with an initially high
amplitude, which is subsequently decaying to a lowest possible amplitude. This process seems very simple,
but many details are needed to achieve good results.

Decisive process parameters:

Ø Frequency: rate of change of the polarity reversal. Low frequency for high penetration depth into the
material.
Ø Field strength: intensity of the alternating field. In general, a high field strength is wanted for the
reversal of hard magnetic spots in the material.
Ø Amplitude decrement: the decrement is a measure for the reduction of the alternating field amplitudes.
Ø Field symmetry: symmetry of the alternating field with respect to the zero field. Symmetry causes the
domains to be vortexed without a permanent preference.
Ø Effective zone: measure for the field volume produced by the coil in which the demagnetizing effect
takes place.
Ø Field homogeneity: measure for the uniformity of the field within the effective zone.
Ø Fluxing direction: direction of the alternating magnetic field relative to the object to be demagnetized.
*****

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