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Computational Investigation of the Aerodynamics of a Wheel Installed on a

Race Car with a Multi-Element Front Wing

Article  in  Fluids · May 2022

DOI: 10.3390/fluids7060182

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 fluids
Article
Computational Investigation of the Aerodynamics of a Wheel
Installed on a Race Car with a Multi-Element Front Wing
Carlo Cravero and Davide Marsano *

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica, Energetica, Gestionale e dei Trasporti (DIME), Università degli Studi di
Genova, Via Montallegro 1, 16145 Genoa, Italy; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The search for high aerodynamic performance of a race car is one of the main aspects of the
design process. The flow around the basic body shape is complicated by the presence of the rotating
wheels. This is especially true in race cars on which the wheels are not shrouded, where the effects on
the flow field are considerable. Despite this, few works have focused on the flow around the rotating
wheels. In this paper, CFD techniques were used to provide a detailed analysis of the flow structures
generated by the interaction between a multielement inverted wing and the wheel of an open-wheel
race car. In the first part, the CFD approach was validated for the isolated wheel case by comparing
the results with experimental and numerical data from the literature. The wheel was analyzed both in
stationary and unsteady flow conditions. Then, the CFD model was adopted to study the interaction
of the flow structures between the wheel with the real grooves on the tire and the front wing of a
Formula 1 car. Three different configurations were considered in order to differentiate the individual
effects. The discussions were supported by the values of the aerodynamic performance coefficients
and flow contours.

Keywords: race car; wheel; CFD

Citation: Cravero, C.; Marsano, D.
Computational Investigation of the
Aerodynamics of a Wheel Installed
on a Race Car with a Multi-Element
1. Introduction
Front Wing. Fluids 2022, 7, 182. The performance of a race car strongly depends on the car’s aerodynamic efficiency.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ Several elements are used, such as inverted wings, flaps, endplates, diffusers, and barge
fluids7060182 boards, to control the airflow and generate downforce: this allows the vehicle to maintain
Academic Editor: Ivette Rodríguez
its grip on the ground, even in extreme conditions. High vertical loads allow greater
traction with the ground, and therefore a higher rating, but mostly guarantee more control
Received: 10 March 2022 when cornering and implicitly higher speeds, thus reducing the lap time. For all these
Accepted: 20 May 2022 reasons, any improvement in the aerodynamic design is considered strategic to increase the
Published: 25 May 2022 performance of a race car. In the past, basic aerodynamic concepts were developed [1–3].
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral In these studies, it was clear that the wheels were some of the most influential components
with regard to jurisdictional claims in to influence the aerodynamic behavior of the vehicle. In fact, if the front wing contributed
published maps and institutional affil- to 30% of total downforce [4], the wheels of an open-wheel car covered 40% of the total
iations. drag [5,6]; this was because the wheel is a bluff body [7]. The interaction of the wheel with
the front inverted wing substantially changes the performance of the two bodies compared
to those of each single component. It is surprising, however, that in the literature, no data
or information on this interaction can be found, apart from the investigations of single
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. components that were individually analyzed. This was probably due to the difficulty in
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
finding the actual geometries of race cars that could be published due to the extremely high
This article is an open access article
confidentiality level of the data in motorsport.
distributed under the terms and
Axon [8] studied an isolated wheel and compared a CFD analysis with experimental
conditions of the Creative Commons
measurements. Mears [9] analyzed the pressure distribution around wheels experimentally
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
using a particle image velocimetry (PIV) method to compare the CFD results from a
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
RANS model. He also compared his results with the classical results of Fackrell [10].
4.0/).

Fluids 2022, 7, 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids7060182 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fluids

Fluids 2022, 7, 182 2 of 17

McManus and Zhang [11] used an unsteady RANS approach to calculate the flow field
around a wheel. More recently, Issakhanian et al. [12] carried out an experiment with
PIV measurements to describe the flow field around a 60% scale model of an isolated
Formula 1 wheel. They showed the reversed flow regions in the wake of the wheel with
its swirling structures. Axerio et al. [13] investigated the flow structure of an isolated
60% scale Formula 1 wheel in stationary and rotating conditions [14]. Specific studies
have been published on the reliability of RANS turbulence closures with a realizable
k-ε model [15,16]. The influence of a rotating and a stationary wheel on a simplified
model of the vehicle with a single airfoil and a smooth tire has been published [17,18].
Regert et al. [19] and Rajaratnam et al. [20] investigated the local flow field around the
wheelhouse. They found that compared to stationary wheels, rotating wheels will induce a
notable influence on the vortex structure and increase the total aerodynamic drag. Pavia
et al. [21] studied the unsteady flow characteristics generated by rotating wheels and
pointed out that wheel rotation could affect the wake bistability of the vehicle, as well as
the aerodynamic forces. Bonitz et al. [22] found that the flow frequency downstream of
the wheels could be altered by the wheel rotation. Wang et al. [23] conducted research on
the effects of moving ground and rotating wheels on the aerodynamics of a square-back
car model and found that the wheel and ground conditions mainly influenced the flow
near the ground. The general wake structure and the total drag were not obviously altered.
Wang et al. [24] proposed a wake status they called “wake balance” by comparing the flow
field of a square-back model with rotating and stationary wheels. Yu et al. [25] investigated
the aerodynamic influence of different ground and wheel conditions on the Notchback
DrivAer using numerical simulations. Zhou et al. [26] experimentally and computationally
investigated the aerodynamic characteristics of three tires of the 185/65 R14 type with
different patterns under loading by comparing a simplified isolated tread tire with the real
complex pattern. The geometrical details’ influence on the flow structure (the effects of
rim coverage area, fan spokes, spoke sharpness) and on the drag coefficient of a passenger
vehicle were investigated by Bolzon et al. [27]. Hobeika and Sebben [28] evaluated the
contribution of a rotating wheel to the aerodynamic drag of a passenger vehicle. The wheels
also play a key role in the flow structure of a car during a braking-in-turn maneuver [29].
In a cornering maneuver, the modeling of moving wheels with respect to the steady case
predicted a difference of 3% in the drag coefficient and 5% in the lift coefficient [30]. The
numerical effects of three different wheel-rotation simulation methods (i.e., the steady
moving wall, the MRF, and the unsteady sliding mesh) on the car aerodynamics were
discussed in [31]. Yu et al. [32] investigated the influence of the wheel contact patch on the
global car aerodynamic performance.
More recently several works have been published on the aerodynamics of race car front
wings [33–35]. The Ansys CFX code, as in the present work, was used to investigate the
ground effect in [36]. The CFD model setup was crucial for correctly comparing different
racing scenarios [37] or for investigating the effect of the wake on the following car [38].
Moreover, car aerodynamics are subject to a number of random variables that introduce
uncertainty into the downforce performance; the effects of the random variations in these
parameters are important to accurately predict a car’s performance during the race [39,40].
The authors carried out a fluid dynamics analysis of a multielement front wing with a
Gurney flap on a Formula 1 car [41] and an extensive aerodynamics analysis on the profile
of the ground effect with the Gurney flap to investigate the vortex-shedding phenomena
that can occur in certain conditions [42].
Additional analyses have been performed on vortex-shedding generation to quantify
the wake and the recirculation zone downstream of a bluff body [43], which can generate
tonal noise in industrial applications [44]. The accuracy of the numerical prediction of
unsteady flows is also essential for vibroacoustic analysis [45,46]. In this study, our attention
was focused on the flow structure around the open wheel and its interaction with the front
wing. In the first phase, the CFD approach was validated on a stationary and a rotating
isolated wheel using reference data from the literature. In the second part, the aerodynamic
Fluids 2022, 7, 182 3 of 17

interaction of a multielement airfoil installed on a Formula 1 car with a detailed tire with
grooves is discussed using a set of CFD simulations.
The main scope of this work was to demonstrate the reliability of a RANS model
to study the flow around the rotating unshrouded wheels of a race car, where the inter-
action with the multielement inverted wing is very notable, and to investigate the flow
mechanisms of the above interaction.

2. CFD Analysis of the Flow Structures around an Isolated Wheel

The case studied in [3,8] has been considered as a reference for the validation of the
CFD approach and for the discussion of the flow structures around the open wheel.

2.1. Governing Equations

The mathematical problem is set by the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations.
The conservation of mass and momentum take the Eulerian conservative divergence form:

∂ρ  →
+ ∇· ρ u = 0 (1)
∂t
 →
∂ ρu  → →
+ ∇· ρ u × u = −∇ P + ∇·τ + S M (2)
∂t
where τ is the tensor of the normal and tangential stress due to viscosity and SM is the
momentum source. The turbulence closure adopted to model the momentum source (the
Reynolds stress tensor) is the k-ω SST. It is based on Boussinesq’s hypothesis to model
the Reynolds stress tensor. This model was developed to combine the accuracy of the k-ω
model near the wall and the robustness of the k-ε in the free stream. It contains different
terms with respect to the standard k-ω formulation. A blending function activates the
models k-ω and k-ε depending on the local value of y+, i.e., close to or far from the wall [47].
A different formulation for the eddy viscosity and modified constants is introduced. The
additional transport equations of the model are:
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = Γ + Gk − Yk + Sk (3)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j k ∂x j
" #
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
Γω


(ρω ) + ρωu j = + Gω − Yω + Dω + Sω (4)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j

where Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to mean velocity
gradients, Gω is the generation term of the specific dissipation rate, Yk and Yω are the
dissipation of k and ω, and Sk and Sω are source terms.
The diffusivity is obtained by the following equations:
µt
Γk = µ + (5)
σk
µt
Γω = µ + (6)
σω
The eddy viscosity is finally computed with:

ρk 1
µt = h i (7)
1
ω max ∗ , SF2
a a1 ω

The model constants are: σk,1 = 1.176, σω,1 = 2.0, σk,2 = 1.0, σω,2 = 1.168, α1 = 0.31,
βi,1 = 0.075, and βi,2 = 0.0828.
 Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18
Fluids 2022, 7, 182 4 of 17

2.2. CFD Model

2.2. CFD Model
The Model
2.2. CFD software ICEM CFD and Ansys CFX were used as simulation platforms. The
The software ICEM CFD and Ansys CFX were used as simulation platforms. The
operating conditions
The conditions
software of the present
ICEM model were obtained byas
scaling the data from the open
operating of the CFD and
present Ansys
model wereCFX were used
obtained simulation
by scaling the data platforms.
from the open The
literature
operating cases. The
conditions flow
of the domain
present consists
model wereof a rectangular
obtained by hexahedron
scaling the data containing
from the the
open
literature cases. The flow domain consists of a rectangular hexahedron containing the
wheel with
literature a diameter d = 620 mm and width of the tread w = 320 mm. The domain has
wheel withcases. The flow
a diameter domain
d = 620 mm and consists
widthofofa the
rectangular
tread w =hexahedron
320 mm. The containing
domain has the
the following
wheel with a geometricdcharacteristics
diameter = 620 mm and (referred
width of to
theastread
the tire
w diameter
= 320 mm. d):The
width in thehas
domain y-
the following geometric characteristics (referred to as the tire diameter d): width in the y-
direction
the y/d =geometric
following 3.66, height z/d = 2.93. The inlet surface isthe
placed at x1/d = 5.0 and the in
outlet
direction y/d = 3.66, heightcharacteristics
z/d = 2.93. The (referred
inlet surfaceto asis placedtireatdiameter
x1/d = 5.0d):
and width the
the outlet
surface at xy/d
y-direction 3/d ==15.0.
3.66,The domain
height z/d =is2.93.
largeTheenough to not influence
inlet surface is placed atthex1flow
/d =structure
5.0 and theof
surface at x3/d = 15.0. The domain is large enough to not influence the flow structure of
the wheel,
outlet which
surface at x3 is
/dthe common
= 15.0. best practice
The domain is largeinenough
external aerodynamic
to not influence thesimulations. The
flow structure
the wheel, which is the common best practice in external aerodynamic simulations. The
domain
of dimensions
the wheel, which isstem from previous
the common works in
best practice [41,42].
external Figure 1 shows the
aerodynamic sketch ofThe
simulations. the
domain dimensions stem from previous works [41,42]. Figure 1 shows the sketch of the
flow domain.
domain dimensions stem from previous works [41,42]. Figure 1 shows the sketch of the
flow domain.
flow domain.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Flow
Flow domain
domain of
of the
the isolated
isolated wheel.
wheel.
Figure 1. Flow domain of the isolated wheel.
The domain
The domain has has been
beendiscretized
discretizedwith withan anunstructured
unstructuredgrid grid with
witha prism
a prism layer of 10
layer of
The domain has been discretized with an unstructured grid with a prism layer of 10
layers
10 near
layers thethe
near wall of the
wall vehicle
of the andand
vehicle its components
its components in order to solve
in order the the
to solve effects of the
effects of
layers near the wall of thesize
vehicle and itscell
components in order to asolve the effects
oneof the
boundary
the boundary layer. TheThe
layer. size of the first
of the cell has
first hasbeen
beenset set totohave
have a y+y+close
close to
to one with a
boundary layer.0.0054
The size
mm.of thesize
first cell has been set to have a fromy+ close to one with aof
dimension of 0.0054 mm. The
The size ofofthetheelements
elements is is
increased
increased from a minimum
a minimum sizesize
of 0.5
dimension of 0.0054 mm. The size of the elements is increased from a minimum size of 0.5
mmmm
0.5 of the tetrahedral
of the tetrahedralelements
elements at at
the thewalls
wallsofofthe
thegrooves
groovesfar farfrom
fromthe thebody.
body. The
The global
global
mm of size
the tetrahedral elements at the cells.
wallsIn ofFigure
the grooves far from the body. The global
mesh size consists of about 15 million cells. In Figure 2, the surface mesh detail wheel
mesh consists of about 15 million 2, the surface mesh detail of the of the
mesh size tread
consists of about 15 tire)
million cells. In Figure 2, volume
the surface mesh detail of the
wheelthe
(with (with thegrooves
tread grooves
on the on theand tire) andplane
a cut a cutofplane
the of the volume
mesh mesh
are are shown.
shown.
wheel (with the tread grooves on the tire) and a cut plane of the volume mesh are shown.

Figure 2. Volume mesh cut plane (left) and surface mesh detail of the wheel (right).
Figure
Figure2.2.Volume
Volumemesh
meshcut
cutplane
plane(left)
(left)and
andsurface
surfacemesh
meshdetail
detailofofthe
thewheel
wheel(right).
(right).

The k-ω
The k-ω SST
SST model
modelhas
hasbeen
beendesigned
designedtoto give accurate predictions the
of the onset and
The k-ω SST model has been designed to give
giveaccurate
accuratepredictions
predictionsofof theonset and
onset the
and
the amount
amount of of separation
flow flow separation
under under
adverse adverse
pressurepressure gradients
gradients by the by the inclusion
inclusion of of
transport
the amount of flow separation under adverse pressure gradients by the inclusion of
transport
effects in effects
the in the formulation
formulation of the of the eddy-viscosity.
eddy-viscosity. This Thisin
results results
a in aimprovement
major major improve- in
transport effects in the formulation of the eddy-viscosity. This results in a major improve-
ment in
terms terms of flow separation predictions. The superior performance of this model has
ment inof flowofseparation
terms predictions.
flow separation The superior
predictions. performance
The superior of this
performance of model has been
this model has
demonstrated in many validation studies [48]. Moreover, it provides good results in
 been demonstrated in many validation studies [48]. Moreover, it provides good resu
comparison to DES or LES models that require computational resources of a differe
Fluids 2022, 7, 182 der or higher magnitude. The following boundary conditions have been5set: of 17 at the in
the domain, a uniform velocity of 12.85 m/s and a turbulence intensity of 0.2%. T
coming fixed flow has been calculated according to the diameter of the wheel to hav
same Reynolds
comparison to DES number as McManus
or LES models andcomputational
that require Zhang [11]: Re = 5.3 ×of10a 5different
resources . At the outlet
domain,
order a pressure
or higher magnitude.ambient conditionboundary
The following has beenconditions
fixed. The lateral
have beenand set: the
at theupper w
the rectangular domain have been set as the inviscid wall, while all the remaining
inlet of the domain, a uniform velocity of 12.85 m/s and a turbulence intensity of 0.2%.
The incoming fixed flow has been calculated according to the diameter of the wheel to
(including the ground and the wheel) have been treated as no-slip walls. Two cases
have the same Reynolds number as McManus and Zhang [11]: Re = 5.3 × 105 . At the
beenofconsidered
outlet the domain,for the isolated
a pressure wheel
ambient model:has
condition stationary
been fixed. orThe
rotating
lateralwheel.
and theIn this s
case,walls
upper the ground has beendomain
of the rectangular fixed at thebeen
have sameset velocity of thewall,
as the inviscid incoming
while all flow
the (in op
direction)
remaining and
walls an angular
(including wall velocity
the ground of 41.42
and the wheel) haverad/s
beenfor the wheel
treated surfaces.
as no-slip walls. The a
been
Two modeled
cases have beenasconsidered
an incompressible isothermal
for the isolated flow stationary
wheel model: at 25 °C. orAllrotating
the equations
wheel. have
Insolved withcase,
this second second-order
the ground numerical
has been fixedschemes carrying
at the same outofsteady
velocity simulation.
the incoming flow The co
(in opposite direction) and an angular wall velocity of 41.42 rad/s for the wheel surfaces.
gence of the simulation has been reached after about 1000 iterations when the cont
The air has been modeled as an incompressible isothermal flow at 25 ◦ C. All the equations
residues
have fall below
been solved 10−4 and all the
with second-order other residues
numerical are abundantly
schemes carrying out steadyunder 10−6. In the
simulation.
conditions,
The convergence theofaerodynamic
the simulationcoefficients have an
has been reached asymptotic
after about 1000fully converged
iterations when trend.
the continuity residues fall below 10−4 and all the other residues are abundantly under
102.3. Validation and Flow Structure Analysis
−6 . In the above conditions, the aerodynamic coefficients have an asymptotic fully

converged trend.
The use of a more realistic geometry that considers the wheel camber, groove
footprint,
2.3. Validationinvolves an asymmetric
and Flow Structure Analysis flow structure, mainly evident in the stationary w
where the of
The use wake
a moreis simpler. The vorticity
realistic geometry iso-surface
that considers the and
wheel the streamlines
camber, groovesaround
and the
are shown
footprint, in Figure
involves 3 for theflow
an asymmetric stationary
structure,wheel
mainlycase. Here,
evident thestationary
in the internal wheel,
side vortex c
a larger area than the one generated with a wheel with zero camber [3] and develops
where the wake is simpler. The vorticity iso-surface and the streamlines around the wheel
are shown in Figure 3 for the stationary wheel case. Here, the internal side vortex covers a
the contact area between the ground and wheel, unlike the outer one that is far away
larger area than the one generated with a wheel with zero camber [3] and develops from
the
the wheel
contact with
area a lower
between intensity.
the ground The grooves
and wheel, unlike the affect
outerthe
oneflow
that isdevelopment
far away from on the
with
the wheela less
withstraight path inThe
a lower intensity. thegrooves
back area affectif the
compared to a smooth
flow development on thetire as with
tread shown in
Figure
a less 4 with
straight paththe surface
in the streamlines
back area if compared of to
wall sheartire
a smooth stress; flow in
as shown recirculations
Figure 4 with are de
with
the curved
surface and close
streamlines lines.
of wall shearDue to flow
stress; the simplification
recirculations are ofdetected
the rims with
with two flat ci
curved
plates, it is not possible to obtain the vortices originating on the sides as not
and close lines. Due to the simplification of the rims with two flat circular plates, it is discussed
possible to obtain the vortices originating on the sides as discussed in [3] on the edge of the
on the edge of the upper ◦ rear tread
◦ between 10° and 30° from the horizontal plane.
upper rear tread between 10 and 30 from the horizontal plane.

Figure
Figure 3. Streamline
3. Streamline and vorticity
and vorticity iso-surface
iso-surface on the stationary
on the stationary wheel. wheel.
 Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18
Fluids 2022, 7, 182 6 of 17

Figure 4. Wheel wall shear stress surface streamlines.

Figure 4. Wheel wall shear stress surface streamlines.
Figure 4. Wheel wall shear stress surface streamlines.
As discussed by several researchers, there is a substantial difference in the flow struc-
As discussed by several researchers, there is a substantial difference in the flow
tures
As between
discussedthebystationary
several and rotating
researchers, wheels.
there In the latter,
iswheels.
a substantial there isinthe presence of a
structures between the stationary and rotating In thedifference
latter, there the
is flow
the struc-
presence
third
tures vortex
between as shown in
theasstationary Figure 5. It develops from the top back of the wheel, forms
of a a
of a third vortex shown in and rotating
Figure wheels. In
5. It develops thethe
from latter,
topthere
back is
of the
the presence
wheel, forms
vortex-shaped
third arch,
vortex as shown and causes
in Figure the wake to develop more in the vertical direction and
a vortex-shaped arch, and causes5.the
It wake
develops from the
to develop top in
more back
the of the wheel,
vertical forms
direction anda
become more arch,
vortex-shaped compactand than in the
causes thestationary
wake to wheel case.
develop more in the vertical direction and
become more compact than in the stationary wheel case.
become more compact than in the stationary wheel case.

Figure5.5.Streamline
Figure Streamlinedetail
detailofofupper
uppervortex
vortexon
onthe
therotating
rotatingwheel.
wheel.
Figure 5. Streamline detail of upper vortex on the rotating wheel.
Theobtained
The obtainedtrendstrendsfor fordrag
dragandandlift
liftcoefficients
coefficientscorrespond
correspondtotowhat whatisisshown
shownininthe the
reference casesfrom
The obtained
reference cases from
trends theliterature;
the literature;
for drag and they
they are
liftare reportedcorrespond
coefficients
reported ininFigure
Figure6.6.to InInwhat
bothcases,
both iscases,
shown there isisaa
in the
there
reductioncases
reference
reduction ininvalues
values
fromifif thetheliterature;
the wheelisisrotating.
wheel rotating.
they areThe TheCC DDisisreduced
reported reduced
in Figureby by 7%;both
6.7%;
In thisiscases,
this isaahigher
higher
there value
is a
value
than that found by McManus and Zhang [11], but much smaller
reduction in values if the wheel is rotating. The CD is reduced by 7%; this is a higher value
than that found by McManus and Zhang [11], but much smaller than
than the
the experimental
experimental
evidence.
than
evidence. TheCCLby
that found
The decreases
McManus
Ldecreases byand
by 52%Zhang
52% andisisin
and inline
line
[11], butwith
withmuch what
what happens
smaller
happens than inthe
in reference
the reference
experimental data.
data.
Thesame
The sameThe
evidence. percentage
CL decreases
percentage reduction
by 52%
reduction between
and is in
between the
thelinestationary
with what
stationary and
and therotating
happens
the rotating
in the wheelwheel(around
reference (around
data.
3%)has
The
3%) hasbeen
same been detectedreduction
percentage
detected ininthis
thiswork
work withrespect
between
with respect totothe
the stationarythenumerical
numerical simulations
and the simulations
rotating ofofMcManus
wheel McManus
(around
and Zhang [11] for the integral pressure coefficient. No experimental
3%) has been detected in this work with respect to the numerical simulations of McManus
and Zhang [11] for the integral pressure coefficient. No experimental measurements
measurements ofofthe
the
pressure
pressure coefficients
coefficients are are available
available for for
the the stationary
stationary wheel wheel
from from
and Zhang [11] for the integral pressure coefficient. No experimental measurements of the the the literature
literature reference.
reference. The
The differences
pressure
differencescoefficients
between between
the the numerical
are numerical
available for the models
models stationary canwheel
can be attributedbe attributed
from theto
to different different
literature
geometry geometry
reference.
details
details
The
and and different
differences
different between
turbulence turbulence
models models models
the numerical
(SST vs.(SST vs.can
k-ε) k-ε)be
combined combined
attributed
with a with
muchto adifferent
much coarser
coarser geometry
mesh mesh
(5:1)
details
from the and different
data turbulence
in reference models
[3]. The (SST vs.
difference ink-ε)
the combined
experimental withdata a muchcan coarser
be due to meshthe
accuracy of pressure and force measurements in those conditions. The use of the fine mesh
uids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18

Fluids 2022, 7, 182 (5:1) from the data in reference [3]. The difference in the experimental data can be due to 7 of 17
the accuracy of pressure and force measurements in those conditions. The use of the fine
mesh combined with the turbulence model of the present results is considered adequate
to give accurate flowwith
combined details
the for the wheels
turbulence to beofused
model for the results
the present analysisisof their interaction
considered adequate to give
with the front wing.
accurate flow details for the wheels to be used for the analysis of their interaction with the
front wing.

Figure 6. Aerodynamic coefficients of isolated wheels.

Figure 6. Aerodynamic coefficients of isolated wheels.
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

Fluids 2022, 7, 182 8 of 17

3. Front Wing and Wheel CFD Model

The Wing
3. Front modeland used in thisCFD
Wheel section
Modelconsists of a multi-element wing with a nose cone. The
wheelThe is included
model used in this sectionofconsists
and the rear part the car of (with a length lv = 3.5
a multi-element wing m)with
is simplified up to
a nose cone.
aThe
distance
wheelofis2.4 m fromand
included the the
front of the
rear partinverted
of the car wing(withwith a tail shape
a length lv = 3.5inm)order to interfere
is simplified
as
uplittle
to a as possible
distance with
of 2.4 the wake
m from of the
the front of upstream
the inverted components.
wing with aThe tail front
shapewing is com-
in order to
posed of aasmain
interfere wing,
little as a flap
possible andthe
with two
wakeendplates. The suspension
of the upstream components. armsThe arefront
included
wing and
is
connected to the wheel rims that are simplified and closed with two circular surfaces.
composed of a main wing, a flap and two endplates. The suspension arms are included
and The detail of
connected to the flow inrims
the wheel the brake
that are system is notand
simplified included. The wheel
closed with is made
two circular of a tire
surfaces.
with a grooved tread; the rotation axis is tilted from horizontal to simulate the wheelof
The detail of the flow in the brake system is not included. The wheel is made cam-
a
ber.
tire In
withorder to savetread;
a grooved a considerable
the rotation amount
axis is of computational
tilted from horizontal resources, only the
to simulate one-half
wheelof
camber. In order to save a considerable amount of computational
the front wing and the vehicle axial symmetry is considered. The main geometrical char- resources, only one-half
of the front
acteristic wing
of this and the
model has vehicle axial symmetry
been reported in a previous is considered.
work [41].The main geometrical
A similar CFD domain
characteristic of this model has been reported in a previous work [41]. A similar CFD
to the previous model for the isolated wheel (Section 2.1) is considered: the ground is a
domain to the previous model for the isolated wheel (Section 2.1) is considered: the ground
surface of 3lv × 8lv and the entire domain has an height 2lv. In addition, the surface in front
is a surface of 3lv × 8lv and the entire domain has an height 2lv . In addition, the surface in
of the wing is placed at 2lv and the surface at the outlet is 5lv away. Figure 7 shows the
front of the wing is placed at 2lv and the surface at the outlet is 5lv away. Figure 7 shows
scheme of the flow domain and the details of the vehicle geometry. The domain is discre-
the scheme of the flow domain and the details of the vehicle geometry. The domain is
tized with an
discretized withunstructured
an unstructured grid with a prism
grid with layerlayer
a prism nearnearthe the
walls of the
walls vehicle
of the and
vehicle andthe
wheel, with the same characteristics as described in the previous
the wheel, with the same characteristics as described in the previous section. Clearly, the section. Clearly, the pres-
ence of theofwing
presence changes
the wing the reference
changes minimum
the reference minimum (1.0 mm)
(1.0 mm)and maximum
and maximum (1.5 mm) mesh
(1.5 mm)
dimensions at the trailing edge with an increased number of
mesh dimensions at the trailing edge with an increased number of overall mesh cells. Two overall mesh cells. Two dif-
ferent meshes
different meshes havehavebeen generated:
been generated: oneone for for
thethe
model model of the carcar
of the without
without thethewheel
wheeland
one
andforonethe
for car
the with the the
car with realreal
wheel.
wheel.TheyThey have
havea aglobal
globalsizesize of
of 34 and 45
34 and 45million
millioncells,
cells,
respectively.
respectively. This
This mesh strategy with
mesh strategy with the
the specific
specificlocallocalrefinement
refinementon onthe
thewings
wingshas has been
been
selected
selectedafter
after aa grid
grid dependency
dependency analysisanalysis[41,42].
[41,42].In Inaaprevious
previouswork work[42],[42],the
theCFD CFDmodel
model
has
has been validatedby
been validated bycomparing
comparing thethe numerical
numerical results
results withwith detailed
detailed experimental
experimental data
data [49]
[49] at different
at different distances
distances from from the ground
the ground and with anddifferent
with different GF heights.
GF heights. In Figure In 8,Figure 8, the
the detail
detail
of theof the surface
surface mesh on meshthe on thewing
front frontiswing is reported.
reported.

Figure
Figure7.
7. Computational
Computational domain and geometry
domain and geometrydetails
detailsofofthe
thefront
frontwing
wingand
andwheel.
wheel.
Fluids 2022,7,7,182
Fluids2022, x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
of 17
18

Figure8.8.Detail
Figure Detailof
ofthe
thesurface
surfacemesh
meshon
onthe
theendplate.
endplate.

Thek-ω
The k-ωSSTSSTturbulence
turbulencemodel
model is set
is set together
together withwith the following
the following boundary
boundary condi-
conditions:
tions: at the inlet of the domain, a uniform velocity of 70 m/s and a turbulence
at the inlet of the domain, a uniform velocity of 70 m/s and a turbulence intensity of 5%, intensity of
5%, and ambient pressure at the outlet of the domain. The symmetry condition
and ambient pressure at the outlet of the domain. The symmetry condition at the symmetry at the sym-
metry surface
surface and theand the no-slip
no-slip wall condition
wall condition with thewith
samethevelocity
same as velocity
the carasatthe
thecar at the
ground
ground
have been have
set. been set. The surfaces
The external external ofsurfaces of the have
the domain domain
beenhave been
set as set as walls
inviscid inviscid
andwalls
the
and the
walls walls
of the carofandtheits
car and its components
components are treated arewith
treated with
no-slip no-slip conditions.
conditions. Only in theOnlycasein
the case
with with thewheel,
the rotating rotating
an wheel,
angularan angular
wall wall
velocity of velocity
230 rad/s ofhas
230been
rad/sfixed
has at
been
thefixed
wheel. at
the wheel. The air is modeled as a perfect isothermal and incompressible
The air is modeled as a perfect isothermal and incompressible fluid. The equations are fluid. The equa-
tions are
solved withsolved with second-order
second-order numerical numerical
schemes and schemes
steady and steady simulations.
simulations. The con-
The convergence of
vergence
the of the is
simulations simulations
based on theis based
valueson ofthe
thevalues of the
residues andresidues and forces
forces acting on theacting on on
car and the
carwheel.
the and onThe the same
wheel. The same convergence
convergence criteria as forcriteria as for the
the previous previousare
application application
considered;are
considered;
the residues andthe residues
the forcesandonthe
theforces
wheelon the wheel
reached reachedvalues
asymptotic asymptotic
after values after ap-
approximately
proximately
1500 iterations. 1500 iterations.

4.4.Flow
FlowStructure
Structurearound
aroundan anOpen
OpenWheel
WheelononRace
RaceCarCarwith
withFront
FrontWing
Wing
Three
Three configurations have been simulated and compared, as reported in
configurations have been simulated and compared, as reported in Table
Table1,1,to
to
analyze the different flow structures and to highlight the different aerodynamic interactions
analyze the different flow structures and to highlight the different aerodynamic interac-
between parts. parts.
tions between
Table 1. Configurations simulated.
Table 1. Configurations simulated.
# Case
# Case
CaseCase
1 1 Geometry without suspension
Geometry without andand
suspension wheel
wheel
Case 2 Complete model with stationary wheel
Case 2 Complete model with stationary wheel
Case 3 Complete model with rotating wheel
Case 3 Complete model with rotating wheel
All the cases are simulated with a steady flow assumption and with the model setup
All the cases are simulated with a steady flow assumption and with the model setup
described in Section 3. To better understand the main differences in the flow structures
described in Section 3. To better understand the main differences in the flow structures
between the three cases, some control planes have been added for the post-processing, as
between
shown in the three
Figure 9. cases, some control
The control planes planes haveimmediately
are located been added for the post-processing,
before as
(plane A: x = 0 m)
shown in Figure 9. The control planes are located immediately before (plane
and behind (plane B: x = 0.66 m) the car front, and at two further downstream sections A: x = 0 m)
and behind
(plane C: x =(plane B: x = 0.66
1.5 m–plane D: x m) them).
= 2.4 car The
front, and at
wheel two furtherbetween
is positioned downstream
planesections
B and
(plane
plane C.C: x = 1.5 m–plane D: x = 2.4 m). The wheel is positioned between plane B and plane
C.
Fluids 2022,
Fluids 2022, 7,
7, 182
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10
10of 18
of 17

Figure 9. Control planes for the post-processing.

Figure 9. Control planes for the post-processing.

In Figure
In Figure 10,
10, the
the velocity
velocity magnitude
magnitude contours
contours withwith velocity
velocity vectors
vectors on
on the
the control
control
planes are
planes are reported
reported toto compare
compare the
the different
different flow
flow structures
structures of
of the
the three
three simulated
simulated cases.
cases.
The contours plotted in the above figure span from 0 m/s (blue) to 100
The contours plotted in the above figure span from 0 m/s (blue) to 100 m/s (red). The m/s (red). The
presence of the wheels behind the flap clearly affects the velocity values on the
presence of the wheels behind the flap clearly affects the velocity values on the car upstream car up-
stream (plane A): in the area below the airfoil, the flow is always accelerated (as in case
(plane A): in the area below the airfoil, the flow is always accelerated (as in case 1), but has 1),
but has lower values due to downstream
lower values due to downstream obstruction. obstruction.
The strong relevance of the wheel can be noticed also on plane B for case 2 and case 3.
The flow is pushed outwards to the car lateral side and the small flow rate in the narrow
area between the tire and the car is fully deflected upward. This is because the endplate
generates a certain vorticity level with anticlockwise vortices, clearly visible in case 1. They
are still visible but less intensive in the other cases.
A significant difference between the single front wing (case 1) and the other cases with
the wheel is evident on control plane C. The presence of the wheel (stationary or rotating)
induces a large area with a low speed and multiple vortex structures. With a stationary
wheel, there are three distinct vortices on the ground with high intensity. The outer one is
due entirely to the wheel (as in the isolated case previously described) while the middle
one and the inner ones can be partially attributed to the wheel and partially to the Coanda
effect from the wing endplate. In fact, the flow is diverted into the car body and when it
finds the lower suspension arms it results in a swirling motion. With the rotating wheel,
the vortices on the ground are only two, and are stronger and confined to a smaller area.
The vortex that originates from the top back of the tread is present in both case 2 and case 3
as discussed in the single wheel analysis.
In the above cases, an additional vortex generates near the car body, not due to the
wheel but due to the presence of the front suspension upper arm that, with its elliptical
section, alters the local flow structures. In Figure 11, a 3D view of the above vortex
formation is reported using streamlines and velocity magnitude contours on an orthogonal
control plane. Here, the vorticity at the aileron endplate outlet hits the internal tread by
reducing the stagnation zone. Due to the proximity of the elements with the tire, the flow
resistance is lower than in the isolated wheel case.
An intermediate vortex is generated in case 3; it connects the standard upper vortex
of the rotating wheel to the one that develops on the ground on the lateral side. This is
due to the interaction of flows coming from the area between the wheel and the car and
those passing outside the tire that tends to join the wake below: this interaction creates the
clockwise vortex.
In both cases 2 and 3, there is a narrow area at a very slow velocity, mainly due to the
flow that follows the upper profile of the endplate and flaps placed above, which impacts
the upper arms linked to the wheel.
Fluids 2022, 7, 182 11 of 17
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

Figure 10. Comparison of the velocity contours on four transversal planes among the three analyzed
Figure 10. Comparison of the velocity contours on four transversal planes among the three ana-
cases.
lyzed cases.
The strong relevance of the wheel can be noticed also on plane B for case 2 and case
3.In
The flow
the is plane
last pushedD, outwards
there isto a the
fadecaroflateral side andfrom
the vortices the small
caseflow rate inin
1, while thethe
narrow
other two
areathe
cases, between theare
vortices tirestill
and present
the car isbut
fully
theydeflected
mergeupward. This is because
with reduced strength. theIfendplate
the wheel is
generatesthe
stationary, a certain
vortexvorticity
core with level withvelocity
lower anticlockwise vortices,
is close to theclearly
car body visible
whenin case
it is 1.
placed
Theyground;
on the are still visible but less
the outer eddyintensive in the other
has regained cases. thanks to its interaction with the
strength
incoming A undisturbed
significant difference
flow. between the single front wing (case 1) and the other cases
with the wheel is evident
The opposite occurs if the on tire
control plane C.the
is rotating: Theouter
presence
vortexof is
thestill
wheel
very(stationary
evident and or very
rotating) induces a large area with a low speed and multiple vortex structures. With a
slow while the inner side has considerably reduced. The strong difference can be discussed
stationary wheel, there are three distinct vortices on the ground with high intensity. The
by comparing planes C and D. In case 3, there are only two vortices behind the wheel rather
outer one is due entirely to the wheel (as in the isolated case previously described) while
thanthe
three, meaning the outer vortex also includes the middle one, increasing its intensity.
middle one and the inner ones can be partially attributed to the wheel and partially to
Casethe Coanda the
2 shows opposite
effect from thebehavior. It is interesting
wing endplate. In fact, the to discuss
flow the pressure
is diverted distributions
into the car body
on the car components, paying specific attention to the wheels. The flow that impacts the
tread is partly at a low velocity due to the inverted wing and endplate, thus reducing the
area of stagnation pressure, as seen in Figure 12. In these pictures, the pressure difference
between the top of the stationary and rotating wheel is highlighted. With the stationary
wheel, the pressure has a minimum located on the top of the tread, while if the wheel is
 Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Fluids 2022, 7, 182 and when it finds the lower suspension arms it results in a swirling motion. With the 12 of 17
rotating wheel, the vortices on the ground are only two, and are stronger and confined to
a smaller area. The vortex that originates from the top back of the tread is present in both
case 2 and case 3 as discussed in the single wheel analysis.
In the
rotating, theabove cases,reduction
pressure an additional vortex
is less generates
evident andnear
morethegradual
car body, notto
due due
thetoseparation
the
ofwheel but due tolayer
the boundary the presence of thefrom
of the fluid frontthe
suspension
surface. upper arm that,
Moreover, the with its elliptical
stagnation zone in the
section, case
rotating altersisthe local flow
displaced onstructures.
the portion In Figure
of the 11, a 3D
tread view of
which the above
is more vortextofor-
exposed free flow,
mation
while theisinternal
reportedpartusing streamlines
has and velocity
lower pressure magnitude
(thanks contours
to the vertical on an
plate orthogonal
located in the front,
control
which plane.the
diverts Here,
flowtheinwards).
vorticity atThis
the avoids
aileron endplate
a strong outlet hits thewith
flow impact internal tread by
reduced velocities
reducing the stagnation zone. Due to the proximity of the elements with the tire, the flow
and high pressures.
resistance is lower than in the isolated wheel case.

Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

the stationary wheel, the pressure has a minimum located on the top of the tread, while if
the wheel is rotating, the pressure reduction is less evident and more gradual due to the
separation of the boundary layer of the fluid from the surface. Moreover, the stagnation
zone in the rotating case is displaced on the portion of the tread which is more exposed to
free flow, while the internal part has lower pressure (thanks to the vertical plate located
in the front, which diverts the flow inwards). This avoids a strong flow impact with re-
Figure 11. Vortex formation from the upper suspension.
duced
Figure 11.velocities and high
Vortex formation pressures.
from the upper suspension.
An intermediate vortex is generated in case 3; it connects the standard upper vortex
of the rotating wheel to the one that develops on the ground on the lateral side. This is
due to the interaction of flows coming from the area between the wheel and the car and
those passing outside the tire that tends to join the wake below: this interaction creates the
clockwise vortex.
In both cases 2 and 3, there is a narrow area at a very slow velocity, mainly due to the
flow that follows the upper profile of the endplate and flaps placed above, which impacts
the upper arms linked to the wheel.
In the last plane D, there is a fade of the vortices from case 1, while in the other two
cases, the vortices are still present but they merge with reduced strength. If the wheel is
stationary, the vortex core with lower velocity is close to the car body when it is placed on
the ground; the outer eddy has regained strength thanks to its interaction with the incom-
ing undisturbed flow.
The opposite occurs if the tire is rotating: the outer vortex is still very evident and
very slow while the inner side has considerably reduced. The strong difference can be
discussed by comparing planes C and D. In case 3, there are only two vortices behind the
wheel rather than three, meaning the outer vortex also includes the middle one, increasing
its intensity. Case 2 shows the opposite behavior. It is interesting to discuss the pressure
distributions on the car components, paying specific attention to the wheels. The flow that
impacts the tread is partly at a low velocity due to the inverted wing and endplate, thus
reducing the area of stagnation pressure, as seen in Figure 12. In these pictures, the pres-
sure difference between the top of the stationary and rotating wheel is highlighted. With

Figure
Figure 12.12.Pressure
Pressure contours
contours onon
3D3D model
model with
with stationary
stationary wheel
wheel (upper)
(upper) and
and rotating
rotating wheel
wheel (lower).
(lower).

With the front wing installed, the stagnation zone on the wheel is less extended than
in the isolated wheel case. The aerodynamic interaction between the wheel and front wing
reduces drag and lift coefficients and slightly increases the pressure coefficient. In Figure
13, the aerodynamic coefficients for the wheel with the front wing are reported in both
 Fluids 2022, 7, 182 13 of 17

With the front wing installed, the stagnation zone on the wheel is less extended than
in the isolated wheel case. The aerodynamic interaction between the wheel and front wing
reduces drag and lift coefficients and slightly increases the pressure coefficient. In Figure 13,
the aerodynamic coefficients for the wheel with the front wing are reported in both cases
of stationary and rotating wheels. A reduction for all aerodynamic coefficients of the
uids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
rotating wheel with respect to the stationary wheel is observed. This behavior matches the
trends reported in the previous section for the isolated wheel, as well as with the literature
reference for the entire car [8].

Figure
Figure 13. 13. Performance
Performance comparison
comparison offront
of the wheel with thewing
wheel withand
-stationary front wing
rotating -stationary
wheel cases. a
cases.
The aerodynamic interaction of the wheel with the front wing can be quantified by
the pressure coefficient distributions for the wing sections for the main airfoil and the flap.
The aerodynamic interaction of the wheel with the front wing can
In Figure 14, the above distributions are compared for a wing section near the endplates
(positioned at y = −0.48 m) for the isolated front wing or with a stationary or rotating wheel
the pressure
installed. coefficient
It is evident distributions
that the aerodynamic for
load of thethe wing
isolated sections
wing is higherfor thanthe
withmain ai
In installed
the Figurewheel.14, the above
In fact, distributions
the negative peak near thearelower
compared
leading edge forof athewing section ne
main wing
exceeds Cp = −3 but with the presence of the wheel, this peak is reduced by about a third,
(positioned at y= −0.48 m) for the isolated front wing or with a stationary
together with the depression on the suction side of the airfoils. This is because the wheel
installed.
produces It isblockage
a flow evident that
effect theupstream
on the aerodynamic
wing that load
createsof thepressure
back isolated wing is
on the
the installed
lower part (suctionwheel. Ininverted
side) of the fact, the
wingnegative
by decreasingpeak near with
its velocity thea lower
reductionleading
of e
local depression. The effect of wheel rotation is modest on the above aerodynamic load.
winga rotating
With exceeds Cp=a −3
wheel, but deeper
slightly with the presence
suction of the wheel,
peak is observed. The differentthistrends
peak is red
third, together
between the rotatingwithand the the depression
stationary ondue
wheels are thetosuction side of the
the flow energization airfoils.
given by Th
wheel produces a flow blockage effect on the upstream wing that creat
rotation. The rotating wheel has a suction effect on the flow from the wing; the flow is
dragged around the wheel with a beneficial effect on the suction peak, and it is possible to
on the recover
partially lowervelocity
part and(suction
diminishside) of pressure
the local the inverted
peak. Thewing
overall by decreasing its
lift coefficient
reductionofofthelocal
(downforce) depression.
isolated wing is CL = The effect
1.25 and of wheel
it drops rotation
to CL = 0.819 with ais modest on th
stationary
wheel or CL = 0.957 with a rotating wheel.
namic load. With a rotating wheel, a slightly deeper suction peak is obse
ent trends between the rotating and the stationary wheels are due to the f
given by rotation. The rotating wheel has a suction effect on the flow fro
flow is dragged around the wheel with a beneficial effect on the suctio
possible to partially recover velocity and diminish the local pressure pea
coefficient (downforce) of the isolated wing is CL = 1.25 and it drops to
stationary wheel or CL = 0.957 with a rotating wheel.
Fluids 2022,
Fluids 2022, 7,
7, 182
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15
14of 18
of 17

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Pressure
Pressure coefficient
coefficient distributions
distributions on
on main
main airfoil
airfoil and
and flap
flap -- section
section at
atyy == −
−0.48
0.48 m.
m.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This study
This study focused
focused onon the
the detailed
detailed analysis
analysis of of flow
flow structures
structures generated
generated by by the
the inter-
inter-
action between the multi-element airfoil and wheel assembly, including the entire front of
action between the multi-element airfoil and wheel assembly, including the entire front of
the car,
the car, of
of an
an actual
actual F1
F1 model
model from
from the
the year
year 2000.
2000. InIn the
the first part, the
first part, the isolated
isolated wheel
wheel flow
flow
structure was
structure wasanalyzed;
analyzed;the theresults
results with
with stationary
stationary or rotating
or rotating wheels
wheels werewere compared
compared with
awith a numerical
numerical and experimental
and experimental reference
reference work workto show to show the reliability
the reliability of the ofCFDtheapproach.
CFD ap-
Aproach.
reductionA reduction in the aerodynamic
in the aerodynamic coefficientscoefficients
was detected was on detected on thewheel
the rotating rotating
casewheel
with
case with respect to the stationary case;
respect to the stationary case; the C D was the CD was reduced by 7% and
reduced by 7% and the C L the CL decreased
decreased by 52%.
by 52%. In the second section, the wheel’s interaction with a front wing was analyzed and
In the second section, the wheel’s interaction with a front wing was analyzed and a more
a more complicated
complicated flow structure
flow structure was discussed.
was discussed. The study Theof study
vortexof motions
vortex motions
generated generated
by the
by the interaction
interaction of the
of the flow flowthe
with with the bodies
bodies is thefor
is the basis basis
the for the technical
technical development
development of recentof
recent
race race
cars. Forcars. For instance,
instance, the peculiar
the peculiar layout of layout of the endplate
the endplate diverts
diverts part part
of the of the
flow nearflow
the
near the
wheel wheel between
between the two the two suspension
suspension arms thanksarms tothanks to the exploitation
the exploitation of the Coanda
of the Coanda effect.
effect. It is not a coincidence that this space is chosen for the location of the air intake
It is not a coincidence that this space is chosen for the location of the air intake to to
cool
the braking system. The swirling flow in that area has low pressure,
cool the braking system. The swirling flow in that area has low pressure, PCP = −0.11, thus C = − 0.11, thus
enhancing
enhancing the the air
air intake
intake efficiency.
efficiency.
Similar considerations
Similar considerations can can bebe drawn
drawn for for the
the control
control plane
plane D D where
where thethe air
air intake
intake forfor
the engine radiators is positioned. The air intakes on the side of the car
the engine radiators is positioned. The air intakes on the side of the car body are positioned body are positioned
close
close toto the
the inner
inner vortex
vortex area,
area,with localCCpp == −
withlocal 0.1, which
−0.1, which guarantees
guarantees thethe fluid’s
fluid’s suction
suction to to
the radiators. Furthermore, the suspension profiles can strongly affect
the radiators. Furthermore, the suspension profiles can strongly affect the fluid dynamics the fluid dynamics
of the car according to the incoming flow structure delivered by the upstream components.
of the car according to the incoming flow structure delivered by the upstream compo-
The same applies to the endplates. They maintain high levels of downforce at the side
nents. The same applies to the endplates. They maintain high levels of downforce at the
end of the airfoils, but also drive the flow in dedicated areas to reduce drag and lift on
side end of the airfoils, but also drive the flow in dedicated areas to reduce drag and lift
the wheels. Since the wheels contribute to 40% of the total car drag, it is essential to try
on the wheels. Since the wheels contribute to 40% of the total car drag, it is essential to try
to reduce it as much as possible. The external flow’s interaction with the braking system
to reduce it as much as possible. The external flow’s interaction with the braking system
Fluids 2022, 7, 182 15 of 17

inside the rotating wheel is another fundamental topic to enhance the braking efficiency by
keeping low drag due to flow interaction effects [50].

Author Contributions: C.C. and D.M. have equally contributed to the concept of the research activity,
the setup of the model, the discussion of the results, and the writing of the paper. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
A Wheel frontal area: d × b
b Wheel breadth
C Chord
Cd Drag coefficient: L/(q∞ A)
Cl Lift coefficient: D/(q∞ A)
Cp Pressure coefficient: p − p∞ /q∞
d Wheel diameter
D Drag force
k Turbulent kinetic energy
lv Vehicle length
L Lift force
p∞ Freestream static pressure
P Static pressure
q∞ Freestream dynamic pressure: (r∞ U2 ∞ )/2
u velocity
U∞ Free stream velocity
W Width
y+ Non dimensional boundary layer distance from wall
µ Dynamic viscosity
ρ Density
ρ∞ Freestream density
τ Tensor of tangential and normal stress
ω Specific rate of dissipation

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