Medicinal and Aromatic Crops (HPM 100) 3 (2+1)
Medicinal and Aromatic Crops (HPM 100) 3 (2+1)
Medicinal and Aromatic Crops (HPM 100) 3 (2+1)
com
planting and after care, cultural practices, training and pruning, nutritional and
composition of a few important medicinal and aromatic plants, extraction, use and
economics of drugs and essential oils in medicinal and aromatic plants. Therapeutic
Citronella grass, khus grass, flag (baje), lavender, geranium, patchouli, bursera,
enthe, musk, Ocimum and other species relevant to the local conditions.
allopathy during the 20th century, plants still remain one of the major sources of
and bacteria are also included. Over 60% of all pharmaceuticals are plant-based.
phenols, tannin, antioxidants and other groups of compounds which may have
or anti-dysentric, etc. Many of the essential oils, dyes, latex and even vegetable
oils are also widely used as medicines. Many substances that go into making up
Out of nearly 4, 50,000 species of higher plants available, only a small proportion
have been investigated for medicinal properties and still a smaller number of
plants yield well defined drugs. The same is the case with lower plants and with
plants of the sea origin. Thus, the knowledge of plant constituents gained so far is
still meager, considering the huge number of species available in the world.
A very small proportion of Indian medicinal plants are lower plants like lichens,
ferns, algae, etc. The majority of medicinal plants are higher plants. The major
plants which do not fall into the above categories. They are made from fruits
from sufferings and ailments. Primitive people, when injured in battle or when
they had a fall or cut, instinctively resorted to materials available at the reach of
hand for stopping the flow of blood or for relieving from pain and, by trial and
error, they learnt that certain plants were more effective than others. Man has
also gained such knowledge from his observation of birds and animals which use
plants for curing their ailments. Even today, we find that the domestic dog and
cat, when they suffer from indigestion or other ailments, run to the field, chew
some grasses or herbs and vomit to get cured. The folk medicines of almost all the
status to the use of medicinal plants by revealing the presence of the active
principles and their actions on human and animal systems. Investigations in the
of cultivation, collection, storage, commerce and therapeutic uses. All these have
The practices of indigenous systems of medicine in India are based mainly on the
use of plants. Charaka Samhita (1000 BC-100 AD) records the use of 2000 plants
for remedies. Ancient medicine was not solely based on empiricism and this is
evident from the fact that some medicinal plants which were used in ancient
times still have their place in modern therapy. Thus for example, „Ephedra‟ a
plant used in China 4000 years ago is still mentioned in modern pharmacopoeias
existence today for curing mental ailments. Quinine, another important anti-
malarial drug of modern medicine, was obtained from the cinchona tree.
centuries and such plants are still valued even today, although synthetics,
however, a fact that these synthetics and antibiotics although they often show
miraculous and often instantaneous results, prove harmful in the long run and
that is why many synthetics and antibiotics have now gone out of use or have
most medicinal plants, however, no such cumulative derogatory effect has been
recorded and that is why many of the medicines obtained from plants are still
It is also true that lately, inspite of the rapid progress and spread of modern
Besides the above, the following are some of the reasons that make the large scale
1. In nature, there remains a wide variation among the plants with regard to
their active principles. As only the best among them are used for
through cultivated sources rather than from natural sources, which mainly
4. In many cases, the important plant parts used are roots or the entire plant,
5. Despite the fact that our forests are the major resource base for medicinal
not been clearly spelt out. Any long-term strategy includes the
led by the burgeoning demand for raw medicinal plant parts has led to the
communities.
Prospects
folk systems of medicine. During the last two decades, there has been a
synthetic drugs, Western countries are increasingly aware of the fact that
drugs from natural sources are far more safer. Therefore, there is an
2. Medicinal plants and their derivatives will continue to play a major role in
obtained in nature.
sunshine make it an ideal place for the luxuriant growth of flora. India is
Despite comprising only 2% of the land mass, India is blessed with 25% of
different ecosystems are said to be used for medicine in our country. The
India and their preparations.. Out of these, quite a few are also recorded in
7. India is the source of cheap labor and skilled manpower which readily
herbs for the emerging world market. At present, India is not self-
utmost attention to check the import by producing the raw material and
capability to grow on marginal lands. They are relatively free from cattle
damage and hence, can be profitably grown in areas where stray cattle or
better earners than many of the field crops. Since they are new crops, there
10. Although India is a leading exporter of medicinal plants in the world, the
at all satisfactory. The reasons for this apparent backwardness are many
and varied.
11. So far, there has been no organized research set-up to continually recharge
viable but also more profitable, so that they can claim their due share in
12. In spite of the thrust given by the government of India through the
institutions like the Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP):
literature, organizing training and quality testing, are very limited because
13. The other major constraint is marketing of the cultivated raw material
14. The systematic cultivation of a few medicinal plants has been found to be a
the user industry to come forward and ensure that the cultivated product
15. Although most of them are industry oriented crops, the pattern of land-
scale. In case of a few plants, viz., aonla, asoka, arjun, bael, nutmeg, neem,
the cultivation involves a long gestation period due to which many farmers
16. Unstable market conditions have also kept farmers away from taking up
annulare fluctuate greatly; the price of the crop/kg ranged from Rs. 70/kg
been fixed, either for the raw material or the final product and, as such,
18. Difficulty in proper identification of medicinal plants has led to the use of
chemical examination.
19. The package of practices for number of medicinal plants has not been
virtually monopolized. It is found that supply and price patterns are often
21. In a number of cases the produce has to be used fresh for which instant
because of its residual effect. Generally, the maximum period for which
similar lines as that of other cash crops like coffee, tea cardamom, to
maximise their production and returns. In fact, in some states like Tamil
could become a world leader in the supply of raw material for the
phytopharmaceutical industry.
dry land and watershed areas could provide a strong thrust to the
Aromatic crops
commercial importance.
o The volatile oils occur in varied parts of the plant anatomy-in some cases
special portion of the plant. Thus, in the conifers, of which the pine is a
type, volatile oil is found all over the various parts; whereas in the rose, the
oil is confined to the petals; in cinnamon, to the bark and the leaves; in the
orange family, chiefly to the flowers and the peel of the fruit; in aromatic
grasses and mints, to the leaves, in ambrette, cumin, fennel, etc, in seeds
and in vetiver in the roots. In plants, these essential oils are produced in
specialized glandular cells. In the case of the leaves and petals, the
History
The history of the use of aromatics dates back through many ages and many
civilizations. It is, however, difficult to pinpoint when exactly man first used
significant role for man in the identification of the right type of food. Most of the
fruits, when ripe and fit for consumption, emit a pleasant smell or aroma. The
pleasant smell of flowers attracts insects and this helps in the cross-pollination,
so essential oils have played a vital role, directly as well as indirectly, in the life of
man since appearance on the Earth as a result of evolution. Plants have played a
central part in many cultures over many eras. On a close study of the subject, it
soon becomes clear just how vast was the knowledge of ancient civilizations
perfumes and aromatics since ancient times and the industry has flourished and
grown considerably. The famous Chinese traveler Fa-Hien described India as the
land of aromatic flowers fruits, woods, roots resins and grasses. Fragrances were
very expensive and were used mostly in worship as incense. In ancient India,
perfumers were important traders; they were called „gandhikas‟, who created
their own blends of perfumes and incense in the form of liquid, sticks, powders,
Mauryan queen, where her perfumes were freshly made by her maid. Sandalwood
was grated on a wet stone, spices pounded in a pestle, then the paste blended in
oil and sweet smelling flowers and leaves added to them. In the Ain-e-Akbari,
Abul Fazal mentions Akbar‟s love of attar and incense, “daily burnt in gold and
silver censers”. At a later date, an apocryphal tale credits the Empress Noorjehan
with discovering the attar of roses. She is said to have noticed the rose-oil floating
on the surface of her bath-water and, thus, the legendary attar of rose was born.
At nawabi banquets, guests were welcomed with attar. They were sprinkled with
rose-water at the gate and then phayas, small swabs of cotton dipped in attar,
would be offered to them on silver trays decorated with flowers. Even the
containers spelt luxury; attardaans were made of carved ivory or chased silver in
lady‟s boudoir would have a lacquer box holding a row of small cut-glass vials of
attar. The silver rose-water sprinklers were shaped like long-stemmed flower
vases and covered in filigree work. Indian cities like Delhi, Agra, Kannauj,
other aromatic compounds, and were known for their quality attars across Asia,
Present status
The world‟s total production of essential oils is estimated at about 1,00,000 –
110000 t, and India stands third with a share of 16-17%. In value terms again,
India‟s position is No.2 and its share is 21-22%. This is because of the mint
revolution in North India. Brazil with its production of citrus oil at 40000 t is the
largest producer of essential oils in the world. However, its share in value terms is
90% while USA is the largest producer and consumer of essential oils.
Most of the essential oils produced are marketed within the country. Also, many
of them are exported. These oils are very expensive and earn good revenue in
The export of perfumery products from India has risen to Rs. 630.28 crores
during 2000-01. India also imports some of these items worth nearly Rs.265.58
crores annually. Among the essential oils exported from India are Japanese mint
other natural and synthetic perfumes in small quantities. Besides menthol, attars
ginger oil, davana oil and spearmint oil are also exported. India also imports a
nutmeg, peppermint, citronella (Java), synthetic essential oils, etc, along with
CONSTRAINTS
According to one estimate, against the world trade of Rs.11,900 crores, the Indian
share is only 2%. This clearly indicates that the rate of growth of these crops in
malpractices and adulteration are some of the reasons for present poor state of
affairs. It is unfortunate that with almost all types of climate and soil existing in
oil bearing plants on scientific lines has not been explored. It is a pity that
barren, waste and marginal are lying fallow, when they can be gainfully used to
The inadequate research support for the cultivation of aromatic crops and
Future Prospects
The future for aromatic crops, however, seems bright due to the
following reasons
1. It is realized now that perfumes and essential oils are not the articles of
luxury as they were in the past. The demand for essential oils is increasing
almost every product used. Essential oils are now a basic raw material for
essential oils are used often and another eight hundred find occasional
absolutes and a few oleoresins and gum resin oils are also used. There is a
of synthetics. On the other hand, aromatic plants and essential oils freshen
2. The search for natural resources has been intensified as synthetics have
3. The aroma therapy is gaining momentum across the world and the interest
in herbs.
4. Natural essential oils have the potential of being very safe insecticides.
One good example in this regard is of the essential oil obtained from
sterility among a variety of insects of either sex. It has been found very
5. Apart from the above facts, essential oil crops are much better earners
7. Their spent waste can be converted into boards and can be used as a
mulching material or ploughed back into the soil to improve its tilth.
8. Most of these raw materials are produced in the tropics, in the developing
countries of Asia and Africa from where they go to Europe and the USA for
and a host of other consumer products which, in turn, are distributed all
9. Thus, they provide a natural asset to these countries for the export trade.
o Despite many odds, India has still been maintaining a leading position in
the production and trade of several essential oils. However, it is now facing
commodities, both for quality and price, any slackness at this stage in
there is now organized cultivation of these crops. Standards are being set
for the presence of overall composition of the produce meant for use in
sources of aromatic materials and these are being widely utilized in the
family Lamiaceae is a well known plant through out the country and one of the
most significant medicinal crops for its tuberous roots. The dried roots are found
to be a rich source of forskolin and are used for treating hypertension, glaucoma,
asthma, congestive heart failures and certain types of cancer. The tuberous roots,
resembling a carrot in shape and brown in colour, are the commercial parts. The
discoveries have indicated that the forskolin is useful against cholesterol and also
used in cosmetics.
The species came into commercial cultivation after the discovery of forskolin, a
cardio vascular system. The dry roots contain forskolin with content ranging from
0.10 to 0.80 per cent. One of the Indian medicinal plants which were very little
known until a few years ago has now been raised as a single medicinal crop of
international importance.
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, tropical east Africa, Brazil. In India, it is found in the
There are about 10,000 ha are under this crop in the country.
roots are fasciculate, succulent, tortuous with 1.0 to 3.0 cm thickness and 20 cm
length.
The inner roots are orange coloured, and has the characteristic pungent odour.
The plants have square stems branched where nodes are often hairy. Leaves are
Cultivation
Soil
C. forskohlii thrives better in well drained soils with a pH ranging from 5.5 -7.0.
It does not require very fertile soils and can be economically grown under
marginal soils.
Climate
Coleus is a crop of the tropics and is found growing well at an altitude of about
2400m under tropical and sub tropical conditions. It grows well under humid
climate with a RH ranging from 83-95% and a temperature range between 10-
Varieties
A selection, K-8 is reported to give 0.5% forskolin and a higher tuber yield. A new
variety „Aisiri‟ with forskolin content of 0.7% released from UAS, Bengaluru.
comprising 3-4 pairs of leaves are preferred. These cuttings are either rooted in
nursery and then planted in the main field or planted directly in the main field.
The ideal season for planting Coleus is from June to July with the onset of South
west monsoon. Before planting, the field is ploughed deep soon after the receipt
of pre monsoon showers and brought to fine tilth. The crop loves high amount of
organic manure and about 25 t FYM/ha is applied. Ridges and furrows are
level. The cuttings are planted at 30 or 45 cm distance depending on the soil type.
While planting, care should be taken to see that minimum of two nodes should be
underneath the soil. Watering should be done before and after planting.
Under drip irrigation system, raised broad row ridges of 90cm width are
applied to condition the soil and to improve its fertility by organic means. Many
recommended for Tamil Nadu. Half the dose of N, the whole P and K may be
as top dressing.
Irrigation
The first irrigation is given immediately after transplanting. In the initial phase,
the crop is irrigated once in three days and there after, weekly irrigation is
Two or three weedings are given and after the second weeding, earthing up is
Copyright
The leaf eating caterpillars, mealy bugs and root knot nematodes are the
important pests. The insect pests can be controlled by spraying the plants and
drenching their roots with 0.1% Methyl parathion, while nematodes can be
Diseases
Bacterial wilt is the major disease and can be controlled by spraying and
drenching the soil with 0.2% captan solution immediately after the appearance of
the disease and later after a week‟s interval. Procuring planting materials from
o The crop is ready for harvest in 180 days after planting. Flowers if any
biomass.
The tubers can also be manually dug and taken with least damage.
o The roots are cleaned making free of soil and transported for drying. The
roots are cut into small pieces using mechanized rotary motors.
o The root bits are spread thinly on the cement yard and allowed to dry for
3-5 days. The roots get completely dried and are packed.
Contract farming
o The firms enter into bilateral agreement with the growers and an area of
o The major areas in Tamil Nadu include Salem and Namakkal districts.
o The firms offer insurance coverage, timely input supply and technical
„Kanvazhikizhangu‟. The plant has been used in the Indian system of medicine
since time immemorial. Its tubers are reported to have been used as a tonic,
antiperiodic, antihelminthic and also against snake bites and scorpion stings. The
drug is a gastro intestinal irritant and may cause vomiting and purging. It is
sometimes used for promoting labour pains and conversely also an abortifacient.
pains. The leaves when applied in the form of a paste to the forehead and neck
are reported to cure asthma in children. The leaf juice is used against head lice.
o The medicinal properties of the drug are due to the presence of alkaloids,
o The colchicine content varies from 0.15 to 0.3% in the tubers, and in the
seeds it ranges from 0.7 to 0.9%. The crop is grown mainly for its seeds
which are in great demand within the country and in the international
market.
o The genus derives its name from the Latin word gloriosus referring to the
flowers.
elevation of 2120m.
adjacent islands.
o The vines are long, weak- stemmed with tuberous roots that support
o The leaves are ovate, lanceolate, acuminate, the tips spirally twisted to
serve as tendrils.
o In the bud stage, the petals hang down over the ovary and on maturity,
right angles.
Cultivation
Soil
It prefers sandy loam soils on the acidic pH with good drainage, for its successful
growth. In Southern India, it is found growing luxuriantly in red and black loamy
soils which have a good amount of humus with a medium water holding capacity.
A soil pH range from 6-7 has been found suitable for raising the crop.
It is a tropical plant and comes up well in warm humid regions. Under natural
annual rainfall of about 370 cm, well distributed throughout the year, is ideally
suited and requires frequent irrigations upto the flowering in dry periods. The
temperature favourable for its growth and flowering are 15-20°C at night. The
congenial for the pathogen Curvularia, which is a very serious threat, resulting in
Propagation
sexually propagated by seeds. The plants raised from seeds take nearly three to
four years to flower. Hence, except for experimental purposes, seed propagation
Glory lily produces a bi-forked tuber during the growing season and each of these
forks has only one growing bud. Tubers should be handled carefully, as they are
brittle and liable to break easily. If the growing bud is subjected to any kind of
damage, the tuber will fail to sprout. Since the vigour of the vine and its flowering
and fruiting ability depends on the size of the tubers, it should not weigh less
than 50-60g. The plants raised from smaller tubers do not produce flowers
during the first year. The dormant tubers start sprouting from the month of May.
avoid rotting of the tubers before sprouting, only healthy tubers should be
selected for planting. The selected tuber pieces should be treated with suitable
The field should be ploughed and harrowed several times until it is brought to
fine tilth. All the grass stubbles and roots should be removed. The field must be
leveled properly and drainage arrangements made to avoid water logging during
the rains. The field is then divided into subplots of convenient sizes. About 15-
20t/ha of FYM or compost should be mixed well into the soil. About 30cm deep
furrows are opened at a spacing of 45-60cm. The treated tubers are planted at a
the type of soil. Closer spacing has been reported to favour cross pollination,
A fertilizer dose of 120kg N, 50kg P2O5 and 75 kg K2O/ha is required for a good
basal dose and the remaining two-third of N should be given in the first six to
Irrigation
Frequent irrigation is required during the sprouting time to keep the surface soft,
emergence of the growing tip outside the soil. Irrigation should be withheld until
the flowering is over, to prevent rotting of the tubers. Excess watering is harmful
to the plants and causes yellow or brown coloured patches on the leaves which
Crop monitoring
The provision of support is necessary for successfully growing glory lily. Since the
stem is very slender, when the plants are about 30-40 cm tall, they should be
standards are used by farmers. The GI trellis wire support system is the
The flowers have deflexed stigma which requires assisted pollination. Hand
pollination is done between 7-11 am every day. Pollens are collected using brush
and dusted on the just opened flowers to ensure maximum seed set.
Weeding
In the initial stages, the glory lily plantation requires frequent weeding to control
the weeds which will otherwise compete with plants for moisture and nutrients
and will restrict the growth of the plant. While weeding utmost care should be
taken to avoid any damage to the growing tip as once damaged it does not sprout
again during the season. Chemical weed control is possible only when there is
when they get favourable conditions, causing severe damage. Hence great care
Pests
1000ml/ha
Diseases
Leaf blight: This disease is caused by the fungus Curvularia lunata. The disease
Tuber rot or Basal stem rotting and wilting: Controlled by drenching the soil with
o When planted in June, it starts bearing flowers after 55 days and continues
o The fruit requires about 105-110 days from the set to reach maturity.
o The right stage of harvest is when the capsule starts turning light green
from dark green and the skin of the fruit shows a shrunken appearance
o After picking, the capsules should be kept in the shade for 7 to 10 days to
seeds.
o The seeds and pericarp are separated manually and dried for a week in the
shade, by spreading them over any clean dry floor or any platform
specially erected for the purpose. At the later stages, the seeds are dried
under sun.
o The dried seeds are then packed in moisture- proof containers and stored
Yield
o The yield of seeds differs greatly, depending upon the size of the tubers
o The average yield is 500 kg dry seed /ha. The seed yield gradually
o Under drip and fertigation system, the seed yield is 1000 kg/ha.
Senna".
the mid-eighteenth century from Europe and hence the Indian produce as
o A major part of the produce is exported in the form of leaves, pods and
sennoside concentrates.
Japan. Other senna importing countries are Spain, France, China, Hong
senna in India.
o The leaves and pods of senna contain sennosides A, B, C and D, which are
world.
o The drug is used as the most reliable and least harmful laxative agent.
o Senna pods and leaves are also used in the form of decoction, powder and
1. There are two sources of senna drug namely, Cassia angustifolia Vahl, and
Gujarat.
o Senna is a small perennial under shrub; leaves are large, compound and
pinnate and emit characteristic fetid smell when crushed. The flowers are
1.5cm broad.
Varieties
ALFT-2
The Gujarat Agricultural University, under the All India Co-ordinated project on
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants at Anand, has released a late flowering type
„ALFT-2‟ through selection, which remains in vegetative stage till 100 days and is
Sona
KKM Sel 1
It is a selection from Thenkalam local, high yielding recording 38.5 per cent
higher leaf yield and 69.88 per cent higher pod yield than local. This is highly
suited for all soils of Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts and ideal for rainfed
cultivation. The plants are spreading and bushy with 7-8 branches attaining a
height of 80-100 cm. The plant has good rejuvenation capacity and suitable for
918 kg/ha of leaves and 352 kg/ha of pods. The total sennoside content is 2.54
per cent. The dried leaves and pods have good export potential and the medicinal
Cultivation
Soil
Senna is a hardy plant and thrives on a variety of soils ranging from sandy loam
to lateritic soils. In southern Tamil Nadu, the crop is grown on poor and marginal
lands under rainfed condition. The soil type in this region is sandy to red sandy
Climate
Generally, the crop requires an all-round warm and dry weather conditions. It is
very sensitive to heavy rainfall, especially at the time of seed sprouting to young
low temperature besides, inclement weather at harvest are unsuitable for its
cultivation.
Propagation
Senna can be cultivated both as rainfed and irrigated crop, however, in most
parts of southern districts, rainfed cultivation dominates and as such, there are
two growing seasons, which coincide with the monsoon rain. The first
commences with the onset of south west monsoon in June-July and the second
irrigated crop.
The crop is raised from seeds. Since the seeds have a hard and tough seed coat, a
A traditional method of seed treatment for removing the hard seed coat is mixing
the required quantity of seeds with dry and pure sand in the ratio of 1:3 and is
gently beaten. Later the seeds are soaked in water for 10-12 hours and then used
for sowing. This practice gives about 90 % germination. The seeds exhibit
dormancy for 2 months. The land should be thoroughly ploughed, at least two
times, and properly leveled for ensuring good drainage. The farmers usually
Small beds are first prepared and shallow straight lines are formed at 45 cm apart
and seeds are dibbled at a depth of 1-2 cm. The seeds start germination in 5-7
days and complete germination in 15 days after sowing. The seedlings are thinned
another 25 kg N after 80 days of sowing. 4-6 irrigations can be given during the
cropping period. Continuous rain, water stagnation and excess moisture are not
Senna is grown after the paddy and grown as intercrop between rows of cotton,
Irrigation
grown as semi irrigated crop, the yield increases considerably and excess
The leaf eating caterpillar feed on the green senna leaves and spraying of carbaryl
(4g/l) controls the infestation. The pod borer is also reported to attack the pods
Diseases
1. Leaf spot and leaf blight: The crop is sprayed with 0.1% benlate at
The leaves can be harvested in 2 months period. The second harvest is made at
30 days interval and the third harvest 40 days after second harvest.The harvested
Yield
It has been shown that young leaves and pods contain more sennosides than the
mature ones; however, bluish green, matured leaves are preferred in the market
leaves containing about 2.0-2.5 % and pods having 2.5-3.0 % of total sennosides
The harvested leaves should be spread in a thin layer under open sun for
6-10 hours to reduce the moisture content. Further drying of the produce
is done in well ventilated drying sheds. It takes 3-5 days to dry the produce
in the sheds by frequently turning them all over. A well dried produce
should have 7-8 percent moisture and should maintain light green to
One of the serious limiting factors in senna trading is lack of grading. High
medium, large and extra large leaves. In the market, three or four grades
o Grade A / first grade:The extra large and bold leaves and pods
one of the few medicinal plants which have found mention in the folk
o Modern investigations have shown that periwinkle contains more than 100
o The plant is native of Madagascar and from there, it has spread to India,
o Farmers prefer it because of its wide adaptability and its ability to grow in
o The presence of alkaloids all over the plant confers immunity to cattle –
o West Germany, Italy, Netherlands and the UK are interested in the roots.
The total demand from these countries is more than 1000t of roots
annually.
Description of plant
white flowers and (iii) white flowers with a rose purple spot in the centre. The
first type is being cultivated because of its higher alkaloid content. Recently, two
white flowered varieties named “Nirmal” and “Dhawal” have been released by the
CIMAP, Lucknow, which although equal in active principles are reported to yield
a higher biomass.
Cultivation
Soil
The crop is hardy and grows well on a wide variety of soils, except those which
are alkaline or water- logged. Deep sandy loam to loam soils of medium fertility
are preferred for its large scale cultivation because of better development of roots
Climate
The distribution of the plant shows that there is no specificity in its climatic
growth in tropical areas is better than in the subtropical areas, where its growth is
is ideal for raising this crop on commercial scale under rain-fed conditions.
Propagation
Since plants propagated by cuttings flower earlier than the plants from seeds, it is
recommended that for drug production the plants should be grown from seeds
Propagation by seeds
Fresh seeds collected a few months in advance are preferred for sowing as they
lose viability on long storage. The seeds can either be directly sown in the field or
Direct Sowing
This method is best suited for large areas where labour is expensive as it reduces
the cost of production. The land is ploughed twice and brought to fine tilth.
Weeds, stubble and pebbles are removed. The field is divided into plots of
convenient size and the soil is mixed with the recommended dose of manures and
fertilizers. The seeds at the rate of 2.5kg/ha are broadcasted at the onset of
monsoon in June – July, in lines spaced 30 -45 cm apart and lightly covered.
Since the seeds are very small, for ease in handling and distribution, they are
mixed with sand about 10 times their weight. Germination takes place after about
When seed supply is short this method can be followed. The other advantage of
growing seedlings can be selected and the inferior ones can be discarded. The
seeds are sown in well prepared, raised nursery beds in March – April in rows
spaced at 8 – 10 cm apart and about 1.5cm deep. About 500 gm of seeds will be
enough to raise seedlings to cover 1 ha area. After two months of germination, the
seedlings are ready for transplanting into the field. The seedlings are
Vegetative propagation
To raise plants by this method, soft wood cuttings obtained from the lateral
shoots have proved better than either hard or semi hard wood cuttings. Cuttings
of about 10 – 15 cm length with a minimum of 5-6 nodes are ideal and result in
about 90% rooting. Soaking the cuttings over night in NAA solution of 25 or 50
ppm concentration has been found to further improve rooting to the extent of
96%. This method can be profitably used for multiplying the clones which have
FYM is applied at the rate of 10 – 15 t/ha to obtain good growth and yield. If
irrigation is available, green manure crops can be raised and ploughed into the
field at the time of flowering. In case organic manure is not applied it is advisable
year. In addition, a top dressing with 20 kg nitrogen can be given in two equal
Irrigation
In places where rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, the plants do
not require any irrigation. However in areas where rainfall is restricted to a few
months in a particular period, about 4-5 irrigations will help the plants to give
optimum yield.
Weed control
The crop requires two weedings in the initial stages of its growth. The first
weeding may be done after about 60 days of sowing and the second at 120 days of
sowing. Mulching the field with cut grass or rice straw will also minimize the
weed growth.
o Plant is hardy hence devoid of pest and diseases. Occasionally they suffer
i. Leaves, stem and seeds: For leaves, leaf stripping twice, first after 6 months and
the second after 9 months of sowing can be taken. A third leaf stripping is also
obtained when the whole plant is harvested. After the plant is harvested, it is
ii. Roots: The crop is harvested 12 months of sowing. The plants are cut about 7.5
cm above the ground level and dried for the stem, leaves and seeds. The field is
then copiously irrigated and when it reaches proper condition for digging, it is
ploughed and the roots are collected. The roots are washed well and dried in the
shade.
For seeds, it has to be collected from matured pods 2 to 3 months before the
harvest of the whole plant. The aerial part of the plant between 7.5cm and about
25 cm above the ground level is taken as the stem for the purpose of marketing.
Yield
Under irrigated conditions, about 4t/ha of leaves, 1.5t/ha of stem and 1.5t/ha of
roots, on air dried basis may be obtained. Whereas, under rainfed conditions, the
dried basis. The total alkaloid content in the leaf varies from 0.15 to 1.34 % of
0.005%
o The WHO puts that, about 400 million of Hepatitis – B carriers are
o Out of these, the main components are lignans like Phyllanthin and
hypophyllanthin.
o The name phyllanthus means „leaf and flower‟ because the flowers, as well
o The genus Phyllanthus has a long history of use in the treatment of liver,
o Plants in the genus Phyllanthus can be found around all tropical regions of
the world; from Africa to Asia, South America and the West Indies.
arable weed of southern Florida, the Bahamas, the West Indies and
niruri reaches a length of 60 cm, the fruits are larger, and the seeds are
Uses
Cultivation
The species is adapted to varied types of soil starting from red loam to lateritic,
calcareous, and black clay soils. It can tolerate a pH of 6.5 to 7.5. However for
duration crop, the soil stratum should be ideal for root and vegetative growth
Being a weed, it tolerance a wide range of climatic condition ranging from the dry
and water starved regions to regions having high rainfall. The crop does not like
water logging but at the same time, assured irrigation is required throughout its
Season
Both the monsoons are suitable for its growth. Winter season is not ideal as the
Propagation
care has to be taken to extract healthy seeds alone for sowing. The seeds lose
germination very quickly and therefore freshly harvested seeds are used for
sowing.
The seeds have to be sown in nursery beds to get the desired yield. Seeds treated
with carbendazim (1 g/l) and mixed with the fine sand and sown on raised
nursery beds applied with plenty of organic manure. The seeds germinate in
about a week and are maintained up to 20 days. Soaking the seeds in fresh water
for 20-30 min before sowing would help in increased germination. About 2.5 kg
of seeds is required for nursery raising and for planting in one hectare.
The land is well ploughed and brought to a fine tilth by adding 10 t of farm yard
manure/ha.
Transplanting
The plants are propagated by seeds. The months of April- May have been found
Healthy vigorous seedlings of 35-40 old or 15 cm height are pulled out from the
nursery and transplanted to the main field. Beds of convenient sizes are prepared
At the time of last ploughing 10t/ha FYM is applied. A dose of 100 :50:50 kg of
NPK is optimum to obtain better growth and herbage yield. Half the dose of N
and full dose of P & K should be applied at the time of transplanting and the
Irrigation
The field should be irrigated before and after transplanting of the seedlings. Life
irrigation should be given three days after the planting. The crop requires
adequate irrigation through out its life period. Irrigation once in a week is
Interculture
Weed infestation would pose a problem in the initial stages. Weeds carried on
through the FYM should be removed and the young seedlings should be
Plant protection
A green coloured semilooper is only the pest in this crop in the early stages of
plant growth and the loss due to this pest is below the economic loss.
Regarding disease, powdery mildew is the only major diseases in the winter
used (2g/l). Stem blight is also a disease found in Phyllanthus. This can be
o The plant becomes ready for harvest in 90 days after planting. The leaves,
fruits and stem are cut at ground level and transported to the drying yard
(under shade) for drying. Care should be taken to harvest the leaves along
herbage/ha is obtained.
o The plant is cultivated for its flowers, whose developing seeds or achenes
swallowed.
o About 70% of the world‟s production finds its way into fly-sprays and
o Kenya and its neighbours Tanzania and Rwanda produce over 80% of the
Kashmir in 1931 and in the Nilgiri hills in the early years of World War II
(1942).
o The leaves are petiolate, long finely cut and silky beneath, with distinct
segments.
leucanthemum Linn.), but differs from the latter in having the central
0.58 and 0.58 to 1.21%, respectively. The pyrethrum grown in Kenya and
o There are three varieties of pyrethrum viz., KKL-1 released from TNAU,
Recently, „Sel-2‟ with 86% more flowers than „Hansa‟ has been developed
Cultivation
Soil
Pyrethrum thrives best on well-drained, sandy soil. Red laterite loams and light
and medium loam soils are also suitable. The yields are considerably lower in
poorly-drained soils. It can grow on mountain slopes and wastelands, but too rich
Climate
Pyrethrum is a temperate crop. It grows best in areas which have a mild, cool, dry
climate with a short, mild winter and a cool summer. A period of chilling, in
which the temperature falls below 17° C, for about six weeks, is necessary for
flower-bud initiation. In places where the winters are long (November to March)
and the summers are warm, there is only one flush of flowering in May and June.
It grows well in places where the annual average rainfall is about 1000 mm and
Season
November) and, in irrigated areas, from March to November. The ideal time for
seedlings can be planted during any time of the year, if irrigation facilities are
available.
Land preparation
clearing of weeds and stubble. Organic manure, if available may be applied at the
time of the last ploughing. It is desirable to make rides 45-50 cm apart if the land
Propagation
splits. The seeds required for sowing should be gathered from selected plants
when the flowers are fully mature and the seeds are about to be shed. The seeds
are pulled up from the ground, the splits of which are used for planting. In
certain areas it is better to plant the splits in nurseries before they are planted in
Seed-beds of convenient length and breadth and 15-18 cm in height are made in
well-prepared land. FYM or poultry manure is added in the top 10 cm of the soil.
The seeds are sown in rows 10 cm apart, and covered with a layer of rice-straw,
wheat-straw or dried grass. The beds are watered frequently. The seeds
germinate in 5-10 days. The mulch is removed after the seeds have sprouted. The
Planting
The seedlings are planted at a distance of 27-45 cm in rows and 45-60 cm apart.
Application of 40-60 kg N, 40-50 kg/ha P and 50-80 kg/ha K is optimum for the
good growth of pyrethrum in the first year. The entire quantity of P and K should
be applied as a basal dose with 50% of the N at the time of planting and the
repeated every year. P and K are generally applied in spring at the time of the first
harvest, while N is applied in two split doses in the months of March and April
increased the flower-yield by 28%. Liming the soil @ 1 t/ha and foliar application
Interculture
Proper weeding and hoeing are necessary to obtain a good yield. Both can be
The first hoeing can be done in autumn after the last crop is harvested, followed
Irrigation
Pyrethrum does not need irrigation if the rainfall is well distributed. However,
under irrigated conditions, weekly irrigation during the peak season gives better
results. Under irrigated conditions, it is observed that the pyrethrum plants start
flowering after 1 year instead of 2 years under un-irrigated conditions. The crop
should be irrigated frequently during the dry months. The crop should also be
disease.
o The crop gives a poor yield in the first year and the optimum yields
o The flowers should be picked when ⅔rd of the disc-florets are pen
pyrethrin content.
replanting is necessary.
o Light pruning at the beginning of the dry season, after picking the
Drying
o They are thinly spread on straw mats and turned over frequently in
use hot-air driers, in which the temperature should not exceed 800C.
o The loss in weight will be about 65-75%. It is safer to dry it in the sun
when the acreage is small and there is no chance of rain during the
harvesting season.
o The average annual yield in Kashmir is about 250 kg/ha, against 700
kg/ha.
Copyright
CINCHONA
drugs.
o In addition, more than twenty other alkaloids have been isolated from
most important.
o In addition to the alkaloids, the bark also contains the bitter glycoside, a-
essential oil possessing the odour of the bark, and a red colouring matter.
o The alkaloids are formed during the descent of the sap, and their
in the root-bark.
quinine, while of the total alkaloids of the root-bark, only 60% is quinine.
Colombia, Eucador, Costa Rica, Peru and Bolivia between 100 N and 190S
o Some species are also cultivated in Java, Sri lanka, India, Myanmar,
to 8000 ha.
entire; the stipules are interpetiolar and deciduous. The inflorescence is a terminal
panicle. The flowers are small and fragrant the calyx is small united and has pointed
lobes; the corolla is tubular with 5 spreading lobes and a frill of hairs along the margins,
while the bifid stigma reaches half the length of the corolla tube. In macrostyled plants,
the stamens are half the length of the corolla tube and the stigma is exerted. The fruit is
a capsule, dehiscing from the base upwards with 40-50 small. Seeds are flat and winged.
Varieties
admixture has taken place among the various species and the present
in the bark has been spotted by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department and is
Cultivation
Soil
Cinchona prefers a light, well drained, virgin forest soil, rich in organic matter
capacity. It prefers acidic soil (pH 4-6 to 6.5). The calcium requirement of this
crop is high.
Climate
However, the other species grow well in areas with an average minimum
83%. The growth is very poor at temperatures below 70C or above 260C. It grows
well in places where the annual rainfall is a little less than 200 mm and is well
distributed over at least eight months of the year. Cinchona is susceptible to frost
Land preparation
For raising cinchona plantations, virgin forest soils are best suited. The forest is
cleared and the ground is leveled and dug to a depth of 1½ ft to improve the soil
structure and to remove stones, if any. About a fortnight prior to planting, pits of
60 x 60 cm are dug and filled up with top soil and well decomposed organic
matter.
Propagation
less expensive.
Seeds propagation
Cinchona seeds are small and light and loose viability on storage. The seeds are
generally sown during April in sloping beds, 12x4 ft, and covered with a thatched
roof.
While sowing, the fresh seeds are scattered thickly on the surface and covered
with a thin layer of fine sand. The beds are then lightly watered using a spray can.
The seed germination is noticed, out of which only about 10% of the seedlings will
be suitable for transplanting after eliminating all the weak, lean and lanky
seedlings. Seedlings are transplanted when they are about four months old, with
two pairs of leaves. The seedlings will be ready for planting in the main field
during mid-May of the succeeding year when they are about 14-18 months old
Vegetative propagation
and layering have recorded the best results. A high percentage (85%) of success is
which are one to two years old. Even the budding on coppices has given a better
etiolating. During May-June, the shoots are treated, from which cuttings are
Transplanting
Planting is done before the onset of heavy rains. The soil should be sufficiently
moist at the time of planting. The planting is done in open pits at a spacing of
done. The plants are gradually harvested from 3-5 years, until about 800 plants
remain in one hectare after 25 years. Young cinchona plants need shade which is
Nutrients are supplied @ 115 kg N, 105 kg P2O5 and 115 kg K2O/ha in the form of
triple super phosphate, muriate of potash and ammonium sulphate. The quinine
content in cinchona is known to increase with the age of the trees, under
Weeding
Besides the native cover, Crotalaria usaramoenis or Leucaena glauca are grown
as cover crops in cinchona plantations. When the plantation becomes older, the
ground is shaded more heavily, hence the original cover crop must be replaced
with shade-tolerant species. The plants should be staked properly in the first
the surface during summer and should be flushed by irrigating the seed-
beds with water mixed with crude oil emulsion. The beetles must be then
o Crickets also cut the young seedlings and drag them to their haunts in the
seed-beds. The haunts must be searched and the insect killed. The
insects.
nurseries and also in the main field. These insects cause leaf-curl by
sucking the juice form the tender leaves. If heavy damage is noticed,
may be sprayed on the plants for controlling these insects. The leaf bug,
Diseases
cinchona seedlings.
o The spread of these diseases can be checked by scooping out the soil in the
o This organism attacks the tender tips of the stems and branches and
the disease.
o Besides, the fungus Armillaria mellea causes root rot and Rosellinia spp.
By judging the amount of vegetative growth, the trees are coppiced when they are
6 to 8 years old.
ground-level.
The leftover stump regenerates to produce a large number of shoots, but only two
or three of these are retained and allowed to grow further. The rest of the
The plants are uprooted in the 30th year when their vigor declines.
The major harvest are obtained at the time of the first two coppicing and only
little yield of bark is obtained from the dead and drying trees and pruning.
The first set of yields is obtained in the third year after planting.
The bark is separated from the coppices by beating it with a mallet and is then peeled by
hand or a knife.
The peeled bark should be dried immediately to prevent the loss of alkaloids, preferably
in the shade.
In rainy weather, drying is done in special sheds or by means of artificial heat.
In well-established plantation, drying is done in well-regulated ovens.
For this purpose, hot air ovens, regulated by 700C, are employed.
The long, strips of bark are cut into small pieces and fed into the upper end of a long,
slightly inclined, rotating, cylindrical oven.
The dried product contains 10% moisture; the dried bark is then packed in gunny bags.
The dried bark is called „Druggists‟ bark (quinine content 1.8-2%) in trade.
Isolation of Quinine
The alkaloids are extracted from the powdered bark.
Quinine is isolated from the total alkaloids of the bark as quinine sulphate.
The commercial preparations contain cinchonidine and dihydroquinine also, and the
quinine may be purified by recrystallizaiton to constant specific rotation.
The crystalline, efflorescent trihydrate is a white, odourless, intenselybitter, micro-
crystalline powder.
Copyright
8
Rauvolfia and Belladona -Importance, chemical composition-origin,
RAUVOLFIA
India.
o The total alkaloid content varies from 1.7 to 3% of the dried roots.
o The drugs and the alkaloids obtained from the plant are used in allopathic
agent.
Andaman Islands.
o In India, it is found in the central regions like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North
The root bark constitutes 40-60% of the whole root, is rich in alkaloid.
Indore released ‘RS-1’ for commercial cultivation. The RS-1 culture gives
50-60% seed germination even after storing it for seven months and the
yield of air dried root gives upto 25 q/ha, contain 1.641 to 2.94% of total
alkaloid.
Cultivation
Soil
The plant requires slightly acidic to neutral soils for good growth with medium to
deep well drained fertile soils. The ideal pH for this crop is from 4.6-6.2. Clay-
loam to silt-loam soils, rich in organic content are suitable for its commercial
cultivation.
Climate
with a temperature range of 10-30oC seems to be well suited for this plant. It
Propagation
Sarpagandha can be propagated by seeds and also by vegetative means like root
Seed propagation is the best method for raising commercial plantation. Seed
percent even when only heavy seeds are chosen for sowing purpose. Light and
heavy seeds during May-June after soaking them in water for 24 hours was 20-40
per cent and 62.77 per cent germination was recorded in freshly collected heavy
In Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, April end, in West Bengal first week of
May or little later, and in Jammu & Dehradun during third week of May are
found to be most suitable time for sowing seed in the nursery. The nursery is
one-third of well matured FYM and leaf mould, and two-thirds amount medium
of silt-loam soil. About 500 sq m seed bed area is sufficient for raising seedlings
enough for planting one hectare land. The seeds sown, 2-3 cm apart in rows in
shallow furrows during April end. The furrows are then covered with a fine
mixture of soil and FYM. Keep the beds just moist by light irrigation.
Root cutting
Nearly 5 cm long root cutting are planted during spring season closely in nursery
beds containing well manured FYM, sand and saw-dust. The beds are kept moist
through watering. The cuttings begin to sprout within 3 weeks. These can be
In this manner, an estimated 100 kg of root cuttings are found sufficient for
Stem cuttings
Hard wooded stem cutting measuring 15 to 22 cm are closely planted during June
and giving out roots, these plants are transplanted in the main field at given
spacing.
Root stumps
About 5 cm of roots, intact with a portion of stem above the collar, are directly
Transplanting
Seedlings of 40-50 days, which have 4-6 leaves, are ready for transplanting. Well
decomposed FYM@ 25 -30 t/ha is added during land preparation. The seedlings
are transplanted in the furrows. About 15 cm deep furrows are dug at a distance
Later two equal doses of N, each of 10kg/ha in moist soil is given at 50 days and
Irrigation
distributed throughout the growing season such as in Assam and Kerala, can be
raised and rain-fed crop under subtropical conditions. It needs regular irrigation
where temperature rise high combined with low rain fall during rainy season. It is
Weeding
The sarpagandha field should be kept relatively weed-free in the initial period of
growth. This means giving two to three weedings and two hoeings in the first year
where sole crop is taken or 5-6 weeding where intercrops in sarpagandha are
practiced.
Intercropping
good irrigation facilities are available. Soya beans and onions or Soya bean and
Nematode: Root knot appears as galls of various sizes, covering the root system.
Grub: Attacks the seedlings about 2cm below the hypocotyl resulting in their
drying up. To control the attack of grubs, mix phorate granules with the soil at
Diseases
Leaf spot: Dark brown coloured spots on the upper surface of the leaves and
Yield
A yield of 2200 kg per hectare of air dried roots has been obtained from 2-year old plantation and
3300kg per hectare from 3 year old plantation, under irrigated conditions on sandy, clay loam soil.
Indian Belladonna‟.
o The commercial drug is obtained from the leaves, flowering tops and roots
of A. belladonna.
o Belladonna leaves are widely used for the manufacture of tinctures and
plasters.
o It is also used in the treatment of renal and bilary colic, stomach disorders
o The roots are primarily used in the external treatment of gout, rheumatism
in south England.
Varieties
Srinagar: It is selection developed by Regional Research Laboratory. It contains 0.6
per cent alakaloid.
Cultivation
Soil
Belladonna grows well in deep fertile soils of medium texture, which are rich in
humus. Heavy clay soils which are water-logged should be avoided to cultivate
this crop.
Climate
winter crop. However, the plant behaves as an annual as it dies during the
Propagation
The crop is propagated through seeds extracted from berries collected usually
for one hectare of land. Seeds may be treated with 80 per cent sulphuric acid at
Nursery raising
It can be cultivated by direct sowing, but raising nursery gives best results. The
nursery may be raised from the second week of May to the end of autumn
(September to October) under sufficient shade. The land should be ploughed well
irrigation channels to be made and apply well decomposed FYM to the soil. Seeds
pretreated with fungicides like Mancozeb (10 g per kg of seeds) may be mixed
with fine soil (1:4 ratio) and broadcasting in the nursery beds. Cover the seed
beds with a layer of FYM and then with straw. Watering of beds should be done
The seeds germinate in 3 weeks time. Seedlings will be ready for planting in the
Broadcasting
About 20kg of seeds are required for sowing one hectare of land by broadcasting.
Before planting, the seedlings are treated with fungicide like Agallol. Seedlings
safer to plant the seedlings on raised beds with 1 m wide strips or ridges as it
avoids water logging and facilitates irrigation. The field may be irrigated
P205 and 30-50kg K2O per hectare. An additional dose of 60-80kg N is applied
in 3-4 split doses as a top dressing at monthly intervals after every harvest.
Irrigation
once in 10-15 days during the dry period. Normally, 6-7 irrigations are required
during the dry months. Care should be taken to avoid water logging.
Belladonna should be kept free from weeds by frequent weeding and hoeing.
in this crop are potato beetle and flea beetle. They can be controlled by treating
the seed bed with aldrin just before planting and treating the soil with the
Diseases
Root rot: Plants at every stage of growth are affected. This can be controlled by
fumigation of soil with Methyl bromide and treating the seeds with agallol or
captan.
Leaf spot: The disease can be controlled by spraying blitox @ 3g/l of water.
Cut worms cause considerable damage to young plants. The other insects noticed
in this crop are potato beetle and flea beetle. They can be controlled by treating
the seed bed with aldrin just before planting and treating the soil with the
Diseases
Root rot: Plants at every stage of growth are affected. This can be controlled by
fumigation of soil with Methyl bromide and treating the seeds with agallol or
captan.
Leaf spot: The disease can be controlled by spraying blitox @ 3g/l of water.
o The first harvest of the leaves is available three month after planting. Harvesting
should be done as soon as the plants start flowering, as it is the period when
alkaloid content is higher. The leaves are cut with the help of pruning scissors.
o Leaves are dried immediately after the harvest under shade or sun or artificial
heat with or without fans for air circulation. Leaves should be turned over
o The roots are also harvested after 3 years. After the harvest, they are washed, cut
into 4 inches length, split length wise if thick and shade or sun dried.
o During the first year, an average of 600 kg of dry herb is obtained. The yield
increases to 1500 kg per hectare during 2nd and 3rd year. The yield of dry roots
Dioscorea
and processing
annually.
Approximately 600 species have been reported to occur throughout the world,
mostly in tropical and subtropical regions and, to a limited extent, in temperate
regions also.
It produces very slender vines and is very weak. It is propagated by tuber pieces,
but the regeneration of tubers is so slow that it takes about 7-10 years to fully
develop even in its natural habitat of temperate regions. Hence, the cultivation of
Meghalaya and the Andaman Islands. This species can be very easily propagated
from tuber pieces and seeds. The plant is dioecious in nature, a robust climber
twining to the left. The branches are thick and it produces yellow, compact tubers
at a shallow depth. The leaves are petiolate and spirally disposed on the stem.
The male flowers are solitary or in groups of 2-3, dark-brown or green and sessile
with 6 stamens. The male spike is short and solitary, with 6 staminodes and a
hypogymous stigma with a bifid apex (divided into two). The diosgenin content
varies from 2-7% depending upon the age of the tubers. The seeds germinate
within 3-4 weeks and produce vigorous seedlings that establish well in the field.
Three varieties of D. floribunda have been released for cultivation. The varieties
FBC-1 strain and Arka Upkar were released from the Indian Institute of
well to tropical and subtropical regions. The salient features of these varieties are
as follows.
FB (C)-1
This is a composite strain from introduced clonal material from Central America.
The plants are vigorous and relatively free from pests and diseases. The tuber
yield is 20 000-25 000 kg/yr (1 kg/plant) or 60 000 kg for a 2-year-old crop (2.5
kg/plant). The diosgenin content of the dried roots varies from 2.5 to 3%.
Arka Upkar
A high yielding clonal selection from FB(C)-1 with intense dark-green leaves and
a vigorous growth. The tuber yield exceeds 6000 kg (in a 2-year-old crop) and the
Pusa-1
A selection from germplasm with a tuber yield of 1.5 kg/vine after 18 months.
D composita Hemsl.
This species is also a native of Mexico and has been domesticated in several
tropical countries. It is a robust climber, twining to the left, which produce large,
tubers which are long, white in colour and grows deep. This species is mostly
propagated from seeds rather than from tubers, as the rotting of tubers is
pronounced.
Cultivation
Soil
Dioscorea can be grown in several types of soils. Light or sandy soils require
heavy irrigation and fertilization whereas heavy clay soils restrict tuber growth
and harvest and often create water-logging. The bet yields are obtained in
medium loam and in deep soils which are rich in organic matter. In red, soils, the
best growth has been observed for both D.floribunda and D.composita. It
tolerates wide variation in soil pH, but highly acidic and highly alkaline soils
should be avoided.
Climate
The different species of Dioscorea are found growing in different climates, but
while D.floribunda and D.composita are more suited to the tropics, D.deltoidea
Land preparation
The field should be ploughed and harrowed several times, leveled properly and
sprouting is completed, earthing up is done, utilizing the soil from the ridges. D.
Propagation
variable and takes a longer time to start yielding tubers, compared to plants
raised from tubers. The choice of propagating material will depend on the cost of
This crop grows best from tuber pieces. Tubers or rhizomes are divided into
approximately 50-60 g pieces for planting. The growth of plants is slow and the
yield lower if smaller pieces are used for planting. There are 3 types of pieces (1)
Crowns (stem end), (2) Medians (middle portion) and (3) Tips (distal ends).
Crowns produce new shoots within 30 days of planting, while the others take
nearly 100 days to sprout. Besides, the crown portion contains less diosgenin
compared to the median and the tips, hence the later can be used for the
extraction of alkaloids and the former can be used for propagation. But, if there is
a shortage of planting material, the median and tips can also be used for planting.
In order to avoid the rotting of tubers (before sprouting), only healthy tubers
(0.3%) for 5 minutes followed by dusting the cut ends with 0.3% benlate powder
Before planting the tubers directly in the main field, they should be stored in a
moist, well-areated rooting medium until shoot growth commences. The benlate-
treated tuber pieces should be kept in raised beds in the shade, covered with sand
and watered daily. After 30 days the sand may be removed and the sprouted
crowns taken out and planted in the field. The median and tip portions are again
covered with sand and watered regularly. Subsequently, after 60-75 days when
they have completely sprouted, they can also be planted in the field.
Season of planting
to plant from the middle of January because they take more time to sprout
compared to the crowns. The new sprouts will grow vigorously during the rainy
b)Propagation by seeds
composita, as compared to the other temperate species. The seed has a wide
membranous wing that can be removed without affecting germination. The seeds
can be sown either in raised beds in the shade (with a mixture of loamy soils and
FYM) or in polythene bags (filled with sand, soil and FYM; 2:1:1). The planting
essential. The seeds germinate within three weeks and are ready for transplanting
The best season for transplanting the seedlings to the field is just before the start
of rains, i.e., in June in South India, but in North India, this can be done at any
Seed production
Since dioscorea is a dioecious plant, female and male plants should be grown
close to obtain the seeds. Under South Indian conditions. Excellent seed set is
noticed. Flowering starts from August and the seeds mature from December to
February. The pods turn brown and dehisce along with the upper margin. The
harvested seeds should be stored in airtight plastic bags where they will remain
c)Propagation by stem-cuttings
D. floribunda can be propagated by stem cuttings with 80% success. The vines
should be raised from 50-100 g tuber pieces in the green house. One or two
month-old vines are taken and cut into single node cuttings, each with one leaf.
They are planted in sand-beds keeping the leaf blade above the sand. Before
planting, the cuttings should be treated with 100 ppm 2,4-D and 0.1% benlate for
4 hours. The beds should be watered regularly, after rooting the cuttings are
transplanted to polythene bags and produce about ten leaves in a period of two
months.
Application of NAA at 100 ppm was found to be most effective for getting 80-
90% rooting.
Provision of support
The vines need support for their optimum growth, as this exposes the maximum
of 2 m-high, stone pillars spaced 9 m apart in the field. Galvanized wires (Nos.6
and 8) are used on the boundaries and the interconnecting wires can be of 12
gauge thickness. The vines are supported on coir ropes tied to the wires and
A well decomposed FYM of 20-25t/ha is applied while preparing the land. Yams
P2O5 and 150 kg K2O/ha, has been found to be optimum for a one-year-old crop
N and K are given in four equal split doses at bimonthly intervals commencing
from 2 months after sprouting. For D. deltoidea, for a 4-year-old crop, the
60 kg K2O in split doses at an interval of one month from the time of planting in
the first year and the same quantity in the second year. In the third year, only N
at 30 kg/ha has to be applied in two split doses. For increasing the tuber yield
recommended.
Irrigation
days in summer and 7 to 10 days in winter is desirable for the proper growth and
Interculture
In the initial stages, yam plantations require more frequent hand-weeding than
in the later stages. Chemical herbicides have also been tried, but are not
medicinal yam with short duration crops like cowpea, cluster beans and kidney
beans, where irrigation is available. This practice not only minimizes the growth
of weeds but also gives additional returns. Apart from this, intercropping also
The two important pests affecting this crop are aphids and red spider mites which
Diseases
affects the crop is the rotting of D.floribunda tuber pieces during storage in sand-
beds. This can be controlled by treating the tubers with 0.3% benlate solution.
D. composita, resulting in defoliation and death of the seedlings. The disease can
Remularia and late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans are reported from
Tamil Nadu and can be controlled by Dithane Z-78 (0.3%) or any other copper
during the first year, and up to 40 to 50 t/ha during the second year. The
in the first year to 3.0-3.5% in the second year. The cost of cultivation is,
The D. deltoidea should be harvested only after three years to get the optimum
yield from the crop with the maximum diosgenin content. Generally, the tubers
with pickaxes. The tubers are harvested when the plants are in a dormant
The tubers are dried under sun to 6-7 per cent moisture which takes about a week
to fully dry the material. The dried tubers are solvent extracted to isolate
diosgenin.
Plantaginaceae, is important for its seeds and husks which have been used
o It derives its name from two Persian words, „asp‟ and „ghol‟ meaning a
o The husk of the seed is economic part and it contains colloidal mucilage
o The husk has the property of absorbing and retaining water and it works
o The seed has also cooling demulscent effects and is used to cure
tracts.
o It is indigenous to the Persia and West Asia, extending upto the Sutlej,
regions.
o At present Isbgol has acquired the place of „dollar earner‟ crop of North
Gujarat.
It is 10-15 cm tall short-stemmed annual herb. Leaves are born alternately on the stem. Flowers
in terminal spikes; fruit is a capsule. The flowers are white and minute. Highly self pollinated.
The capsule is ovate, 8mm long, releasing the smooth, dull, ovate seeds which are translucent
Varieties
Gujarat Isabgol-1 and Gujarat Isabgol -2 are the two varieties of this crop
Cultivation
Soil
It is an irrigated crop which grows well on light soils. Soil with poor
drainage is not conducive for good growth of this crop. A silty-loam soil
having a soil pH from 4.7 to 7.7 with high nitrogen and low moisture
Climate
Isabgol thrives well in warm- temperate regions. It requires cool and dry
weather & is sown during winter months. Sowing during first week of
November gives best yields. Early sowing makes the crop vulnerable to
proportionately decrease the yield, at times leading to even total loss of the
Land preparation
Field must be free of weeds and clods. The number of ploughing, harrowing
and hoeing depends upon the soil conditions, previous crop and degree of
the field at the time of last ploughing. The field should be divided into
suitable plots of convenient size, depending upon the texture of the soil, the
slope of the field and quantum of irrigation. For light soil with even
Seed sowing
crop harvested at the end of the preceding crop season. Old seeds tend to
lose viability under ordinary storage conditions. Seed at the rate of 4-8 kg
per hectare is sown after treating it with any mercurial seed-dresser at the
rate of 3 g/kg of seed, to protect the seedlings from the possible attack of
damping off.
The seeds are small and light. Hence before sowing, the seed is mixed with
sufficient quantity of fine sand or sieved farmyard manure. The seeds are
the seed yield. After broadcasting, seeds are swept lightly with a broom to
cover them with some soil. Broom however, should be swept in one
direction only, to avoid deep burial of the seed for uniform germination.
another watering.
consisting of 50kg N, 25kg P2O5 and 30kg K2O/ha gives maximum seed
yield. The full dose of P and K along with half of the N is given as a basal
dose. The second split of N is applied as a top dressing after one month of
sowing.
Irrigation
should be given with light flow or shower of water otherwise, with fast
current of water most of the seeds will be swept to one side of the plot and
the germination and distribution will not be uniform. The seeds germinate
Later on irrigations are given as and when required. Last irrigation should
be given at the time when maximum number of spikes shoots up. The crop
requires totally 6-7 irrigations for its good productivity in medium sandy
soils.
like, farm yard manure (FYM), vermi compost, green manure, etc. may be
could be prepared (either single or mixture) from Neem (kernel, seeds &
White grubs and termites damage the crop by cutting off the root which can be
controlled by broad casting phorate 10G @10kg/ha. Aphids also attack the crop
Disease
disease appears at the time of spike initiation. The first symptom is small patches
on the leaves, completely destroying it and thus affecting the yield. To control it,
Bordeaux mixture or Dithane M-45 or any copper fungicide at the rate of 2-2.5g/l
can be sprayed.
in February-March (110-130 days after sowing). When mature, the crop turn
yellowish and the spikes turn brownish. The seeds are shed when the spikes are
pressed even slightly. At the time of harvest, the atmosphere must be dry and
After two days, they are threshed with the help of tractor during early morning.
Water is sprinkled over the heap for easy thrashing and separation.
Yield
Gujarat Isabgol-1, variety yields 800-900 kg of seeds per hectare. The new variety
o Aloe species, perennial succulent belonging to the family Liliaceae and has
o They are: A. barbadensis, A. ferox and other species (A. Africana and A.
spicata).
o Two of the major products derived from the leaves are the yellow bitter
o Apart from these products, several other products like dehydrated aloe
o Plants of the genus Aloe belong to the old world and are indigenous to
o The species spread to the Mediterranean basin and reached the West
Indies, India, china and other countries in the 16th century and certain
The plants have multiple tuberous roots and many supporting roots penetrating
into the soil.
Aloe does not have a true stem but produces bloom stalks.
The plants generally grow slow close to the ground in a typical rosette shape.
The fleshly leaves are densely crowded, strongly, cuticularized and have a spiny
margin with thin walled tubular cells.
The flowers vary from yellow to rich orange in colour and are arranged in axillary
The ovary is superior, triocular with axile placentation. The plant does not
produce many viable seeds.
o In A.vera var.chinensis Baker, common all over the Deccan, the leaves
have a distinct purple colour towards the base and the spies are not sharp.
dentate margin.
o It has large, fleshy, green leaves with sharp spines and white specks at the
Soil
Because of its hardy nature, the plant can be grown on a variety of soils. It
can be seen growing successfully from sandy coastal soils to loamy soils of
Climate
It has wide adaptability and can grow in various climatic conditions. It can
be seen growing equally good in warm humid or dry climate with even 150-
between March and June. However, in dry regions, the crop should be
Propagation
purpose, medium sized root suckers are chosen and carefully dug out
without damaging the parent plant at the base and directly planted in the
main field. It can also be propagated through rhizome cuttings. In this case,
after the harvest of the crop, the underground rhizome is also dug out and
made in to 5-6 cm length cuttings which should have minimum 2-3 nodes
The field should be prepared well before the onset of monsoon and small
furrows opened. About 15-18 cm long root suckers or rhizome cuttings are
planted at a spacing of 60x45 cm in such a way that two third portion of the
Manuring
fertilizers are applied in the soil near the root system, after the plants are
established.
Soon after planting, the land is irrigated. During the crop period, irrigation
irrigations per year are sufficient. However, water should not be allowed to
stagnate near plant. The land is kept weed free by weeding the plot as and
when necessary.
Control measures
3. Leaf spot can be controlled by spraying the crop with 0.2% Mancozeb at
weekly intervals
After about 8 months, the leaves are ready for harvest. While harvesting, the
plants can be removed manually. The broken rhizome parts left in this soil throws
new sprouts to raise the succeeding crop. Aloe plantation gives commercial yield
from second year and upto 5 years. Thereafter, it needs replantation for economic
yields. An average crop yield of about 10,000 to 12,000 kg on fresh weight basis
Processing
o Among the various plants which are being used as raw materials for the
to its shorter crop duration and low initial investment in its commercial
cultivation.
antifertility properties, due to which they find large-scale use in health and
2 000 m and is reported from Khasi, Jaintia and the Naga Hills of Assam
and Manipur.
o It occurs in Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa, the Upper Gangetic Plains and in
Varieties
Some of the promising, less spiny strains developed in this crop are the Glaxo
strain, BARC Strain, Pusa-1, RRL 20-2 RRL-G and L-6 which is said to be less-
spiny. 'Arka Sanjeevini' and 'Arka Mahima' are the two varieties developed at the
content of 2.5%.
Cultivation
Soil
Solanum is a hardy plant and can be cultivated on a wide range of soils under
can be grown in all types of soils, the best soil for its successful cultivation is red
lateritic soil with a moderate quantity of organic matter. The plant does not
Climate
It is found growing under different kinds of climates throughout the length and
breadth of the country, but prefers a moderate climate for its successful growth.
The growth as well as development of the plants and, finally, the yield of fruits
may vary from June to September or October. The plants sown in late October to
February are more susceptible to virus diseases, and sowing in March is not
practicable as harvesting and drying will be hindered by the rainy season. Under
rain fed conditions, the crop should be sown from mid-June to the first week of
Propagation
The seeds are raised in nursery beds of 10m X 1m size. To each strip 10kg of FYM,
1kg of Calcium ammonium nitrate are applied. Seeds are presoaked in water for
24 hours and sown in lines of 1 to 1.5 cm-deep furrows, 10 cm apart and covered
with a thin layer of soil. About 1.25 kg seeds sown in 5 nursery beds of the above
size will provide enough seedlings for planting 1 ha of land. Their germination is
completed in 7-10 days. Within 4-5 weeks, when the seedlings are 10-12 cm high
and develop 6 leaves, they are ready for transplanting into the main field at a
tetraploid variety.
manuring before planting has been found to increase the yield by 20%. For better
potassium and half of the nitrogen are applied at the time of land preparation.
While the remaining half of the nitrogen is applied when the plants start
flowering.
Irrigation
In the absence of sufficient moisture in the soil, the field should be immediately
during the first month and then the interval is increased to once in fortnight, and
Weeding
After 2-3 weeks of transplanting the first weeding is done, and later when the
crop is 2-3 months old. Afterwards, the crop puts on enough canopies to smother
The plant is hardy and, therefore, free from any of the serious pests. However, it
of severe attack, the crop may be sprayed with Endosulphan (3 ml/l) to control
them. The fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and root-grubs are the other pests
Diseases
Powdery mildew is noticed during prolonged dry and warm period, Bavistin (1
Collar rot or Fusarium wilt can be overcome by keeping the field clean and
planting the crop in a well drained soil. Dipping the roots of the seedlings in a 0.1
% solution of Bavistin for 1 hour and drenching the seed-beds with 0.25% of
Sometimes the plants are attacked by mosaic, caused by three different viruses,
which leads to stunted growth and chloratic leave Such plants are better removed
and destroyed.
Nematodes
The occurrence of the chlorotic stunt disease and its association with the root-
physiological age of the fruit and attains its peak value in the fruits of 50-
60 days.
green to just yellow with streaks of green still present, after which the
o It is, however, established that about 60% of this is present in the seeds
The crop takes about 6 months to be ready for harvesting.
The spiny nature of the plant hampers plucking the berries at the right stage of maturity,
which is very important. During the first part of the harvesting season, when the fruit is
big, on an average, one person with gloves can pluck about 50 kg of berries, while
working 8 hours a day. However, some good workers in the peak season when most of
the berries are ready for harvest can pick even 80 kg of berries per day.
The pharmaceutical firms need berries containing about 10% moisture. Hence, the berries
must be dried in the sun.
Yield
When the crop is grown by adopting proper cultivation practices, it may yield nearly
10,000 kg/ha of fresh berries which, in turn, will give about 2,500 kg/ha of dried berries.
Importance
Mints are a group of perennial herbaceous plants, belonging to the family
Lamiaceae; which yield essential oil on distillation. The various species of mints
which are commer¬cially cultivated in different parts of the world are: Japanese
mint or corn mint or field mint (Mentha arvensis) peppermint (M. piperita L.),
spearmint or lamb mint (M. spicata L.) and bergamot mint or orange mint (M.
citrata Ehrh.).
there, spread to the rest of the world by both natural and artifi¬cial means.
USA.
India.
o The total area under mint cultivation, which is mostly confined to Uttar
Terai region and the annual production of menthol from India is 8000 ton.
stocks which creep along the ground or just under the surface and root at the
M. citrata grows up to 30-60 cm height, with decumbent branches and erect ends. The
arise. The leaves are sessile, smooth above and glandular below, the apex is acute and up
to 6.5 cm long.
Another variety of spearmint known as scotch spearmint (M. cardiaca . (S.F. Gray
Varieties
A) Japanese Mint
oil is around 290-293 kg/ha. This variety is highly resistant to rust, leaf-spot and
Shivalik: It was introduced from China and released by the CIMAP, Lucknow.
The plant has a compact, bushy growth with thick, leathery leaves.
EC-41911: It is less affected by rain, root ¬rot and aphids and is reported to yield
236.5 g/ha of herbage and 12.2 kg/ha of oil, with a menthol contented 70%.
B) Peppermint
Kukrail: This is a high yielding variety developed and released by the CIMAP
Lucknow.
C) Bergamot Mint
high oil content and quality. Yield 239 kg/ha of oil with 48% linalool.
D) Spearmint
Lucknow.
0.4-6.0% oil. The main constituents of the oil are menthol (65-75%),
limonene and camphene). The menthol content of the oil varies, depending
and other items like tobacco, cigarettes and paan masala. Medicinally, it is
The fresh herb contains essential oils ranging from 0.4 to 0.6%. The
Linalool and linalyl acetate are the main constituents of Bergamot mint oil.
The principal constituent of spearmint oil is carvone (57.71%) and the other
pickles and spices, chewing gum and confec¬tionery, soaps and sauces.
Cultivation
Seasons
temperate climates, planting is done in autumn or spring from the last week
of December to the first week of March or from the first week of January to
the third week of February. Late planting always gives poor yields.
Soil
Medium to fertile deep soil, rich in humus is ideal for the cultivation of
mint. The soil should have a good water-holding capacity but water-logging
Climate
irrigation. However, it does not tolerate damp winters which cause root-rot.
in tropical and subtropical areas, especially those areas with very high
summer temperatures (41°C) and the ideal yield is obtained only in humid
and temperate conditions like in Kashmir and the hills of Uttar Pradesh and
the growing period are congenial for the good growth and development of
the oil.
Land preparation
Mints require thoroughly ploughed, harrowed, fine soil. All the stubble of
(Crotalaria juncea L.) is an ideal green manure crop. Mints are planted on
flat land or ridges. Hence, flat beds of convenient sizes or ridges are made
Propagation
peppermint and bergamot mint, even runners are planted. Stolons are
About 400 kg stolons are required for plant¬ing one hectare of land. The
best time for obtaining stolons is during the months of December and
January.
Planting
The stolons are cut into small pieces (7-10 cm) and planted in shallow
half-way down on the inner sides of the ridges. The plot is irrigated
Fertilizer application
120 kg; P and K at 50 kg are required for a good crop of mint. However, in
N/ha has given increased fresh herbage and essential oil-yield. Potassium
planting and the third dose after the first harvest of the crop. Boron
deficiency reduces both the yield of green herb and the essential oil in
Irrigation
The water requirement of mint is very high. Depending upon the soil and
climatic conditions, the crop is irrigated 6-9 times before the first monsoon.
The crop requires three irrigations after the monsoons during September,
the plant is dormant and there are no winter rains to encourage proper
Uninterrupted weed growth causes about 60% reduction in herb and oil-
yields. Hence, mints require weeding and hoeing at regular inter¬vals in the
early stages of crop growth. One hand-weeding is required after the first
Crop rotation
The following crop rotations are in practice in Uttar Pradesh (a) Mint-
maize-potato (b) Mint early paddy and potato and (c) Mint-late paddy and
sweet pea. Whereas, in Punjab, the farmers practice mint-maize and rape
seed/mustard and mint-maize and 'potato or mint and paddy rotation. The
A large number of insect pests attack mints. Among them, the impor¬tant ones
The attack of the hairy caterpillar (Diacrisia obliqua Walk) during the months of
Dipterex. During the dry months, termite attacks are often observed. These can
soil before planting. Other pests like cut-worm (Aulucophora favicollis) also
Nematodes severely damage the foliage yield of mints. The nematodes can be
effectively controlled by the application of neem cake @ 250 kg/ha to the soil.
Diseases
which have been reported to affect mint to a signifi¬cant extent under Indian
conditions.
Harvesting
o If the harvesting is delayed the leaves start falling, resulting in loss of oil.
above the ground. A second harvest is obtained about 80 days after the
first harvest and the third one after about 80 days from the second
harvest.
in temperate climates, the first crop is ready by the end of June and the
herb. However, the average yield of mints from three cuttings is 20-25
Mint oil is obtained by distilling either the fresh or the dry herb. The distillation
is done both in primitive and modern stills; in the former the principle of water
separate boiler is employed. The stems are removed from the dried material prior
The average yield of oil is 50-70 kg/ha. Although bergamot mint as well as
Japanese mint gives an average yield of 70-100 kg/ha, the yield of peppermint oil
Storage of oil
Mint oil is a light and golden-coloured, motile liquid and it should be completely
free from moisture before storage. It is stored in large steel, galvanized steel or
aluminum containers, filled up to the brim to protect against any air remaining
inside and placed in a cool storage godown, away from light and humidity.
medicinal uses.
and tumors.
tumors.
o The roots and fruits are used in palsy, gout and lumbago. Long
Piper longum is cultivated in a small extent in Kerala, Assam and Tamil Nadu
the Indian requirement, about 70 ton of long pepper dry spikes are imported
from Indonesia.
Cultivation
Soil and climate
inorganic matter content with good moisture holding capacities are also
suitable.
The plant requires a hot moist climate and an elevation between 100 and
1000 m for its cultivation. It can be grown successfully even in areas which
under crop in coconut and areca nut gardens with 20-25 per cent shade
intensity.
Propagation
can be easily propagated through the terminal stem cutting obtained from
one year old growth and 3-5 internodes. To plant one hectare, about 25000
filled with the common pot mixture. The nursery can be raised during
March and April. The cuttings planted in March-April will be ready for
Planting
properly. Then the field is divided into plots of convenient in which the pits
are dug at a spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm. These pits are filled with soil mixed
are made to drain excess water. Afterwards, with the onset of monsoon the
rooted cuttings are planted in the pits at the rate of 2 per pit. The pits are
gap filled one month after planting. Long pepper is planted as an inter crop
The crop needs heavy manuring. About 20 tons FYM along with 50 kg N, 20
kg P205 and 70 kg K20 per ha/ year is required for optimum growth and
yield. OF this 50% of N and entire dose of P205 and K20 is given as basal
doses and the remaining N is given as top dressing. Since the crop will give
economic yield for 3 years, the manuring has to be done each year. In the
Irrigation
case the crop is grown as an inter crop with other crops, the irrigation
Interculture
During the first year of planting, weeding is done when weed growth is
summer, to prevent the moisture less or losses from the soil surface, the
Plant Protection
the pests. Adults and nymphs of Helopeltis theivora severely feeds on the
repeatedly.
The first harvest can be done after six months of planting. The spikes are ready
for harvest 2 months after their formation on the plants. Spikes are picked when
they are blackish green and most pungent. The harvested spikes are dried in the
sun for 4 to 5 days until they are perfectly dry. The green/to dry spike ratio is
around 10:1.5. The dried spikes are then stored in the moisture proof containers.
During the first year, the dry spike yield is around 200 kg per hectare. The yield increases
thereafter up to 3 years and it will be about 500 kg per hectare during the third year. After three
years, the productivity of the vines decreases and should be replanted. Besides the spike, the
thick parts of stems and roots which have medicinal value may also be harvested from 18
months after planting. While harvesting the stems are cut close to ground, the roots are dug up,
cleaned and heaped in shade for a day, after which they are cut close to ground, the roots are
dug up, cleaned and heaped in shade for a day, after which they are cut into 2.5 to 5 cm long
pieces. The average yield of dried roots is 500 kg per hectare
Aswagandha is found wild in grazing grounds in Mandsaur and the forest lands
in the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, all over the foothills of the Punjab and
Himachal Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh, in the Himalayas. It is also found
in the wild in the Mediterranean regions in North Africa. The crop is cultivated in
an area of about 4000 ha in India, mainly in the drier parts of Manasa, Neemach
and Jawad tehsils of the Mandsaur district of Madhya Pradesh, in Punjab, Sindh,
Rajasthan and South India. In Karnataka, its cultivation has been reported in the
Mysore districts.
Pradesh. The estimated annual production is 2500 metric tones of dry roots.
Varieties
A variety named Jawahar Asgandh (WS-20) has been released from a single plant
Agricultural Research Station, Mandsaur. This variety has recorded the highest
dry root yield, consistently over the others. A high root and alkaloid yielding
Cultivation
Soil and climate
tropical areas receiving low rainfall are suitable for cultivation of this crop.
The crop requires dry season during its growing period. Temperature
between 20oC to 35oC is most suitable for cultivation. Late winter rains are
Land preparation
Ashwagandha is usually grown in fields which are not well covered by the
The soil of the field selected for ashwagandha cultivation is well pulverized
wooden plank.
The crop can be sown either by broad casting or in lines. Line to line
usually sown about 1-3 cm deep during June- July in nursery. A light
shower after sowing ensures good germination. About 5-12 kg seeds are
sufficient for one hectare field. The seedling of 25-35 days old can be
plants & the rows. As Ashwagnadha is a rainy season Kharif crop, the time
cultivation.
hand at 25-30 days after sowing to maintain a plant density of about 30-60
plant density to be used may depend on the nature and fertility of the soil.
On the marginal land the plant population should be kept high. One
The ashwagandha crop does not require heavy doses of manure and
fertilizers are applied and the crop is cultivated on only residual fertility.
Irrigation
o Seed rotting, seedling blight and leaf blight are common diseases affecting
ashwagandha.
The plants start flowering and bearing fruits from December onwards. The crop
is ready for harvest in January- March at 150 to 180 days after sowing. The
maturity of crop is judged by drying out of leaves and yellow red berries in the
Processing
one acre of land. On drying, it comes to 180 kg. Berries should be hand plucked
separately. They are dried and crushed to take out the seeds. The dried roots,
entire or transversely cut into smaller pieces, have to be further cleaned, trimmed
breaks off the thin, brittle lateral rootlets. Lateral branches, root crown and stem
Grading
The entire produce (dried roots) is then carefully hand sorted into following 4
grades.
cm long, diameter 1 to
Lower grade: Small pieces of root, roots are somewhat hollow, yellowish from
inside.
obtained by incision of the bark. The resin is largely used as incense, as a fixative in
antiseptic and digestant. It is highly effective in the treatment of obesity, arthritis and
indolent ulcers. Inhalation of the fumes of burnt guggul is recommended in hay fever,
acute and chronic cataeeh, chronic laryngitis, chronic bronchitis and phthisis. It is an
ingredient of ointment of ulcers. Due to its property of lowering the cholesterol level of
Australia, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Four spices occur in India. These are
Varieties
Marusudha, a high yielder which has been released for cultivation from Anand,
Gujarat.
which have moisture retaining capacity. An average soil which has good drainage
Climate
The crop prefers a warm dry climate and hence quite suitable for dry regions. The
plant is susceptible to the frost and hence such situation should be avoided for
Propagation
seed propagation.
Planting
The land is prepared well in advance of rainy seasons by 2.3 ploughing and laid
out into plots of convenient sizes. Pits of size 0.5 x 0.5 m (0.5 m2) are dug at the
spacing of 3x3 m. They are filled with FYM and top soil. The rooted cuttings are
planted in the pits during the rainy season. As the plant grows they are trained
The crop has not shown good response to fertilizers expect to low level or
Irrigation
Inter cultivation
Weeding and hoeing in the early stages of growth and stirring of soli around the
The diseases noticed on this crop are leaf spot and bacterial leaf blight.
Yield
From a 10 year old plant, about 700-900 g of gum resin may be obtained. This is turn may give a
yield of about 700-900 kg of gum resin per hectare.
family, Papavaraceae.
medical research.
the latex of capsules of the opium poppy, the source of a number of very
and thebain.
o The seeds do not contain any alkaloids, but are also reported to contain a
human system.
relieve pain and induce sleep, in addition to their use against cough.
supervision of a physician.
o In India, this plant is mainly cultivated for its latex (opium) and the seeds
come as a by-product.
o These seeds are quite a rich source of fatty oil and protein and, in many
and bread.
o In some places, the young plants are also consumed as a leafy vegetable.
o Its cultivation has to be done under the strict control of the Central Excise
region and from there it has spread through the Balkan peninsula to Asia Minor
and India. Since antiquity, its cultivation has been in vogue in Italy, Greece and
First, it was cultivated along the sea coast and later penetrated into the interior of
the peninsula.
The 1953, the United Nation's Opium Conference Protocol (still in effect) for
limiting and regulating the cultivation of opium poppy plants asserts that
Bulgaria, Greece, India, Iran, Turkey, the USSR, Egypt, Czechoslovakia, Poland,
Yugoslavia are the countries that may legally produce opium. The only country
where substantial amount of opium is now produced for export is, India which
amounts to 1,465 t annually and forms over 90% of the world production. In
India, all the opium of commerce is now grown mainly in the states of Uttar
The control and regulation of all aspects of the cultivation of poppy and wholesale
trade has been under the purview of the Government of the India since 1773.
After the partitioning of the Indian subcontinent in 1947, the essentials of the
present system of narcotics control, which derived from the system instituted by
the British in the 1857 Opium Act, were retained with few changes.
opium is poor.
height of 120 cm with large, serrated leaves and attractive brightly coloured
(white, pink, purple, red and variegated) flowers. The main shoot and branches
terminate into large, oblong to globose capsules, filled with small white, flat
oil.
Varieties
The most popular varieties grown in the country remain in the field from 140 to
160 days. The following are some of the important varieties of which Talia,
Ranghatak and Dhola Chota Gothia are popular varieties recommended for heavy
black soils.
(i) Talia
It is sown early and it remains in the field for 140 days. Its flowers are pink and
have large petals. The capsule is oblong, ovate, light-green and shiny (waxy).
(ii) Ranghatak
5.0 cm), which are slightly flat-tened on the top. It yields opium of a
It is a dwarf cultivar (85-90 cm), bearing pure white flowers and light¬ green
capsules which are oblong-ovate in shape. It is ready for lancing after 105-115
(iv) MOP-3
This variety has been developed at the Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa
non-serrated petals. Its capsules are ready for lancing 120 days after sowing and
the variety is recommended where adequate irrigation facilities exist in the later
(v) MOP-16
This is another promising selection made at the Jawaharalal Nehru Krishi Vishwa
Vidyalaya, Mandsaur. The plant bears white flowers with serrated petals and
(vi) Shama
This variety was released by the CIMAP, Lucknow during the year 1983. The
(vii) Shweta
This variety was also released by the CIMAP, Lucknow, along with Shama.
Lucknow, by crossing selections from Kali Dandi, Suyapankhi and Safaid Dandi.
about 54 kg/ha of opium and 10-13 q/ha of seeds. The morphine content is 13%
and above pose a problem, since they remain wet during the rains and are too
moderately resistant to downy mildew. It yields 35-45 kg/ha of latex and 9-10
In general, the crop needs long cold season (20°C) with adequate sunshine in the
early season for a healthy vegetative growth; heavy rains after sowing cause loss
required during the reproductive period. Cloudy weather, frost, hailstorms and
high gusty winds, particularly during lancing, causes immense damage to the
is moderately resistant to downy mildew. It gives 45-54 kg/ha of latex, 8-10 q/ha
poppy for the production of oil and seed and 'Shubhra' for high morphine and
seed yield have been released from the NBRI, Lucknow, RRL, Jammu and
ClMAP, Lucknow.
Cultivation
Soil
The opium crop needs deep clay loam, highly fertile and well – drained soils with
a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5. Such soils, containing adequate organic matter, retain
soils can give high yields under good management. Heavy clay or fine sandy soils
generally sowing for correcting zinc deficiency 12-30 kg/ha of zinc sulphate
should be added.
Sowing
Poppy seeds should be sown in a well prepared soil. The file dshould be given 5-6
cross ploughings followed by planting. The land should be divided into small
plots to facilitate irrigation. The seeds should be treated with thiram (405 g/kg of
seed) to protect the seeds against soil borne pathogens. The seeds are sown
between late October to mid November. After sowing, seeds are covered by a thin
Fertilizer application
The crop requires nutrients required for flowering and capsule formation. A
Irrigation
The first irrigation is given, immediately after sowing, if there is not enough
moisture available in the soil. For subsequent irrigations, 7-10 days Irrigation
schedule is the optimum depending upon the weather and soil conditions. A total
After about 90 to 100 days of sowing, the plants which are waist-high begin to
flower, i.e., flowering will take place during first week of March, if the crop was
sown during the second fortnight of November. Usually after 3 days of flowering,
the petals fall off and after another 10-14 days the capsules are ready for lancing.
Diseases
o Other diseases : Root rot ,leaf blight, cabbage ring spot virus, beet
plot), usually on bright sunny days between noon and 4 p.m. The hottest part of
the day is chosen, since the pellicle is said to form on the surface of the freshly
exuded latex due to the hot sun, resulting in a greater degree of evaporation and
The lancing operation is started at the edge of the field and the person works
backward to avoid contact with the exuding latex. The hand is quickly passed
over a capsule with the exuding latex. The hand is quickly passed over a capsule
The lancing instrument, called “Nastar” or “Naka”, comprises of four lines about
the dimension of ordinary needles spaced at 1.5 to 2mm apart and affixed to a
holder about 18cm long. The nester is held carefully, as one holds a pencil while
writing and the incision is made by a swift downward stroke starting just below
the stigmatic rays. The depth of the incision is controlled by the affixation of the
lines to the holder, for if incisions are too deep the latex is exuded to the interior
of the capsules and is thus lost. If the cut is too shallow the yield of latex will be
low, usually, an incision with a depth of 0.4 cm is considered ideal. About 150-
accumulated in the outer wall of the capsule. It quickly darkens and dries during
the course of the day and is generally collected the next day before 10a.m. by
scraping with a trowel called the Seetoah. The collection may also be delayed for
one or two days, depending upon the „appearance‟ of the capsules and the vigor
after the latex flow. In other words the interval is subjectively determined by the
collator. The lancing process is usually repeated twice, making a total of series of
the capsules are exceptionally, large, four to five lancing can be done. The air
dried latex, which has now become blackish in colour, is scraped from the
capsules into small earthenware pots which are lined with polythene sheets.
Scraping is carried out by grasping the capsule between the thumb and forefinger
of the left hand and including it gently, the scraper is then drawn upwards. The
The semi-dry, blackish latex is then transferred to wooden trays and dried
further, upon arrival at the factory, appropriate samples are drawn from each
grower‟s produce and their quality is determined in the laboratory of the Chief
follows:
Copyright
require and is carefully air-dried in the sun to 70˚ consistency. The drying
4 times a day. Sun drying is considered a critical process, since artificial drying
36kg of opium with 70˚consistency. The opium is then packed in polythene bags,
is available in cubical cakes. These are wrapped in „butter paper‟ tied and
stamped and shipped to various states where the opium is taxed and sold to those
Harvesting of seeds
The capsules, after the lancing operation and collection of opium latex, are
allowed to dry on the plant itself. The drying process takes about 15 days after the
lancing is completed. In India, the capsules are plucked by hand and the seeds
are separated after breaking the capsules. Are plucked by hand and the seeds are
3.5 to 4g.
On an average 25-30 kg/ha of crude opium and 400-500 kg/ha of seeds are
Poaceae, which upon as the steam distillation gives an essential oil known to the
trade as the oil of Java citronella. This is used extensively as a source of imported
perfumery chemicals like citronellal, citronellol and geraniol, which finds use in
industries throughout the world. Citronella oil is classified in trade into two
types, i.e. Ceylon citronella oil obtained from Cymbopogon nardus a rather
inferior type, while the Java citronella oil obtained from C. winterianus is
considered a superior type. Java citronella oil has higher alcohol content (90-
95%) than the Ceylon type (60-71%). Citronella is used as a starting material for
further derivatives.
o Both the Ceylon and Java types of citronella have probably originated from
the bulk of which is produced in Taiwan, Guatemala, the Honduras, Malaysia and
Brazil. India produces about 120t oil annually. The important states in our
country growing this crop are Assam, Gujarat, Jammu, Kashmir, Karnataka,
Varieties
o Jorhat- C2, Java -2, and CIMAP- Bio-13 are the high yielding varieties of
o An elite mutant clone of Manjusha M3-8 named „Manjari‟ which has been
found to possess 50-90% more oil, high citronellol and low elemol content
o Manjari is an erect growing herb with yellowish green leaves and a dark
purple stem.
o It is profuse tillering and rapid growing ability hence produces a high herb
yield.
Cultivation
Soil
The plant has been found to grown well under varying soil conditions but sandy
loam soil with abundant organic matter is the most suitable. Heavy clay and
well in a wide range of soil pH ranging from 5.8 to 8.0. However, a pH of around
6.0 is the most suitable. The plants are reported to grow well at altitudes between
1000-1500m.
Climate
abundant moisture and sunshine for its good growth. However the distribution of
rainfall is important rather than the total amount. Well distributed rainfall
ranging from 200- 250cm and high atmospheric humidity appears to influence
the plant‟s growth, yield and quality of oil favourably. In areas where the rainfall
Land Preparation
The land is brought to a fine tilth by ploughing and harrowing and the field is laid
out in 6m x 6m size beds, providing irrigation channels. Ridges and furrows are
Propagation
the plains of the North and North – eastern regions. Viable seeds, however, are
not formed because of irregularities in meiosis and therefore the species can be
propagated only by vegetatively. The slips are taken from healthy, vigorously
of slips and each slip contains 1-3 tillers. The fibrous roots and leaves should be
trimmed off the slips before planting. It is observed that one year old clump on an
Planting
The slips are planted in May- June when they establish well in this region. Late
planting, particularly after July, sometimes results in heavy casualty. The slips
are planted at a distance of 60cm x 60cm apart. However in areas where the soil
is very fertile and the climatic conditions support luxurious growth spacing of
90cm x 90cm may be followed. It is better if the slips are planted on ridges to
avoid water –logging. The field should be irrigated immediately after planting, if
In the red laterite soil of Karnataka and other Southern States where the plant
grows through out the year 10t of FYM is applied. A fertilizer dose of 80-120 kg
N, 80 kg P2O5 and 40kg K2O is given. Nitrogen is applied in 4 equal split doses,
the first about a month after planting and then after each harvest at an interval of
Irrigation
areas where the annual rainfall is about 200-250cm, well distributed over the
year and humidity is high, supplementary irrigation is not necessary. In the drier
months, however, irrigation may be provided and this increases the yield. Under
Karnataka conditions about 8-10 irrigations are required in the dry period.
Interculture
Citronella plantations should be kept weed –free. When the plants have
established themselves and grown into bushes the problem is not that severe.
However in newly established plantations and after each harvest, weeds spring
Termites, mites and thrips are minor pests occurring in the crop. These are
ml/litre).
Diseases:
Hexaconazole 5%
Among the insects termites are reported to cause the most damage to the plants.
March, June and September. The crop flowers during October – November and
the flowering stalks should be nipped off to discourage flowering. If the flowering
stalks are allowed to grow, the plants will tend to age very soon and their life span
may be reduced. Generally the crop once planted yields a profitable income for
about 3-4 years and should be replanted after this period. Well maintained
The yield of leaves may range from 15-20t/ha in the first year and 20-25t/ha in
the second and third years. The yield of oil obtained during the first year is about
100-150 kg/ha and in subsequent years about 200-250 kg/ha oil may be
obtained.
the source of lemon grass oil obtained from the leaves and shoots of the
plant.
Lemon grass oil is mainly used in the manufacture of perfumes for soaps,
Ionone prepared from the citral present in lemon grass oil was one of the
The oil can be used to improve the flavour of some fish and can be used to
flavour wines and sauces. It can be used for headache, tooth aches, baths,
o It grows wild in many tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, Africa and
America.
o Although the oil has been known since very early times in India, the
o Traditionally, India has been the largest supplier of lemon grass oil to the
o The production of oil which was 1800t in 1961 -62 has declined to about
400t at present.
o The Indian monopoly in the lemon grass trade in the world market has
been broken due to the entry of Guatemala and a few other Latin American
states including Brazil and Mexico, Puerto Rico, Dominica, and China.