DISASTER READINESS AND

RISK REDUCTION
CHAPTER 1 – Basic Concept of
Disaster and Disaster Risk
 Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk
“The man does better who runs from disaster than he who is
caught by it.” –Homer
• The Philippines, by virtue of its location, climate and topography,
is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world.
• Philippines is a part of the Circum-Pacific seismic belt (Pacific
Ring of Fire)
• Disasters triggered by natural hazard. Hazards that lead to
disasters.
• RA 10121 or the “Philippines Disaster Risk Reduction
Management Act of 2010”
Basic Concepts – Disaster, Disaster Risk
Reduction, and Disaster Management
• DISASTER is an event, either manmade or more often
natural, that causes the disruption of a community or society
in which there is a large amount of human, economic and
environmental losses which exceed the capability of a
community or society to handle with its own present
resources in the occurrence of the event. It will only be
considered an event if there is a threat of loss of lives and/or
material.
(Vulnerability + Hazard)/Capacity = Disaster
Basic Concepts – Disaster, Disaster Risk
Reduction, and Disaster Management
• Vulnerability is determined by different factors like
economic, social, political and physical or any other element
which reduces the capacity to cope or resist disasters.
• Hazard is a threatening event or the probability of it to
occur.
• Natural Hazard (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
droughts and epidemics)
• Man-made Hazard (industrial accidents, transport
accidents and famine)
Types of Disasters
1. Natural disasters. Including floods, hurricanes,
earthquakes and volcano eruptions that have immediate
impacts on human health and secondary impacts further
causing death and suffering.
2. Environmental emergencies. Including technological and
industrial accidents, usually involving the production, use
or transportation of hazardous material which occur where
these materials are produced, used or transported, and
forest fires caused by humans.
Types of Disasters
3. Complex emergencies. Involving break-down of authority,
looting and attacks on strategic installation, including conflict
situations and war.

4. Pandemic emergencies. Involving a sudden onset of

contagious disease that affects health, disrupts services and
businesses, and bring economic and social costs.
Disaster Risk
Disaster Risk to determine disaster risks, three aspects need
to be present: a hazard, vulnerability to the hazard, and
coping capacity.
Disaster Risk Reduction
Disaster Risk Reduction as described by United Nations Office
for Disaster Risk Reduction, aims to reduce the damage
caused by natural hazards like earthquakes, droughts and
cyclones, through an ethic of prevention. It is seen as the
concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through
systematic efforts to analyzed and manage the causal factors
of these disasters.
Disaster Management
Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and
management of resources and responsibilities in dealing with
all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, particularly
preparedness, response and recovery, in order to lessen the
impact of disasters. They aim to reduce, or avoid potential
losses from hazards, to assure prompt and appropriate
assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and
effective recovery.
Four Disaster Management Phases
1. Mitigation – Minimizing the effects of disaster.
Ex: Building codes and zoning; vulnerability analysis;
public education
2. Preparedness – Planning how to respond.
Ex: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training;
warning system
3. Response – Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a
disaster
Ex: search and rescue; emergency relief
Four Disaster Management Phases
4. Recovery – Returning the community to normal
Ex: temporary housing; grants; medical care
Goals of Disaster Management:
1. Reduce, or avoid, losses from hazards;
2. Assure prompt assistance to victims;
3. Achieve rapid and effective recovery.
Humanitarian Action
During a disaster, humanitarian agencies are often called upon
to deal with immediate response and recovery. To be able to
respond effectively, these agencies must have experienced
leaders, trained personnel, adequate transport and logistic
support, appropriate communications, and guidelines for
working in emergencies. If the necessary preparations have
not been made, the humanitarian agencies will not be able to
meet the immediate needs of the people.
Climate Change and
Global Warming
Climate Change
Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate
that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended
period, typically decades or longer. This may be due to natural
internal processes or external sources such as modulation of
the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere
or in land use.
Causes of Climate Change
• Humans have caused more than 90% of global warming
since 1900 and virtually 100% of the global warming since
1970.
• Increase in fertility also increases land use, energy intensity,
energy use, water use and carbon emissions.
• Increase of greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse Effect
• Carbon dioxide absorb heat emitted from the Earth’s
surface. Increases in the atmospheric concentrations of
these gases cause Earth to warm by trapping more of this
heat.
Effect of Climate Change
• Agriculture
• Fisheries
• Human Health
• Environment
• Ecosystem
Solutions to Climate Change
• Reduce use of fossil fuels
• Use Renewable Energy
• Use of biofuels
Effects of Disasters
1. Displaced Populations
2. Health Risks
3. Food Scarcity
4. Emotional Aftershocks
Human Factors and the Severity of Natural
Disasters
• Wealth.
• Education.
• Governance.
• Technology.
• Age.
• Gender.
DISASTER READINESS AND
RISK REDUCTION
CHAPTER 1 – Basic Concept of
Disaster and Disaster Risk
 Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk
“The man does better who runs from disaster than he who is
caught by it.” –Homer
• The Philippines, by virtue of its location, climate and topography,
is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world.
• Philippines is a part of the Circum-Pacific seismic belt (Pacific
Ring of Fire)
• Disasters triggered by natural hazard. Hazards that lead to
disasters.
• RA 10121 or the “Philippines Disaster Risk Reduction
Management Act of 2010”
Basic Concepts – Disaster, Disaster Risk
Reduction, and Disaster Management
• DISASTER is an event, either manmade or more often
natural, that causes the disruption of a community or society
in which there is a large amount of human, economic and
environmental losses which exceed the capability of a
community or society to handle with its own present
resources in the occurrence of the event. It will only be
considered an event if there is a threat of loss of lives and/or
material.
(Vulnerability + Hazard)/Capacity = Disaster
Basic Concepts – Disaster, Disaster Risk
Reduction, and Disaster Management
• Vulnerability is determined by different factors like
economic, social, political and physical or any other element
which reduces the capacity to cope or resist disasters.
• Hazard is a threatening event or the probability of it to
occur.
• Natural Hazard (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
droughts and epidemics)
• Man-made Hazard (industrial accidents, transport
accidents and famine)
Types of Disasters
1. Natural disasters. Including floods, hurricanes,
earthquakes and volcano eruptions that have immediate
impacts on human health and secondary impacts further
causing death and suffering.
2. Environmental emergencies. Including technological and
industrial accidents, usually involving the production, use
or transportation of hazardous material which occur where
these materials are produced, used or transported, and
forest fires caused by humans.
Types of Disasters
3. Complex emergencies. Involving break-down of authority,
looting and attacks on strategic installation, including conflict
situations and war.

4. Pandemic emergencies. Involving a sudden onset of

contagious disease that affects health, disrupts services and
businesses, and bring economic and social costs.
Disaster Risk
Disaster Risk to determine disaster risks, three aspects need
to be present: a hazard, vulnerability to the hazard, and
coping capacity.
Disaster Risk Reduction
Disaster Risk Reduction as described by United Nations Office
for Disaster Risk Reduction, aims to reduce the damage
caused by natural hazards like earthquakes, droughts and
cyclones, through an ethic of prevention. It is seen as the
concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through
systematic efforts to analyzed and manage the causal factors
of these disasters.
Disaster Management
Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and
management of resources and responsibilities in dealing with
all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, particularly
preparedness, response and recovery, in order to lessen the
impact of disasters. They aim to reduce, or avoid potential
losses from hazards, to assure prompt and appropriate
assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and
effective recovery.
Four Disaster Management Phases
1. Mitigation – Minimizing the effects of disaster.
Ex: Building codes and zoning; vulnerability analysis;
public education
2. Preparedness – Planning how to respond.
Ex: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training;
warning system
3. Response – Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a
disaster
Ex: search and rescue; emergency relief
Four Disaster Management Phases
4. Recovery – Returning the community to normal
Ex: temporary housing; grants; medical care
Goals of Disaster Management:
1. Reduce, or avoid, losses from hazards;
2. Assure prompt assistance to victims;
3. Achieve rapid and effective recovery.
Humanitarian Action
During a disaster, humanitarian agencies are often called upon
to deal with immediate response and recovery. To be able to
respond effectively, these agencies must have experienced
leaders, trained personnel, adequate transport and logistic
support, appropriate communications, and guidelines for
working in emergencies. If the necessary preparations have
not been made, the humanitarian agencies will not be able to
meet the immediate needs of the people.
Climate Change and
Global Warming
Climate Change
Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate
that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended
period, typically decades or longer. This may be due to natural
internal processes or external sources such as modulation of
the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere
or in land use.
Causes of Climate Change
• Humans have caused more than 90% of global warming
since 1900 and virtually 100% of the global warming since
1970.
• Increase in fertility also increases land use, energy intensity,
energy use, water use and carbon emissions.
• Increase of greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse Effect
• Carbon dioxide absorb heat emitted from the Earth’s
surface. Increases in the atmospheric concentrations of
these gases cause Earth to warm by trapping more of this
heat.
Effect of Climate Change
• Agriculture
• Fisheries
• Human Health
• Environment
• Ecosystem
Solutions to Climate Change
• Reduce use of fossil fuels
• Use Renewable Energy
• Use of biofuels
Effects of Disasters
1. Displaced Populations
2. Health Risks
3. Food Scarcity
4. Emotional Aftershocks
Human Factors and the Severity of Natural
Disasters
• Wealth.
• Education.
• Governance.
• Technology.
• Age.
• Gender.
CHAPTER 2 – EXPOSURE AND
VULNERABILITY
 EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY
VULNERABILITY refers to the inclination of exposed elements
such as human beings, their livelihoods, and assets to suffer
adverse effects when affected by hazardous events.
This is related to predisposition, susceptibilities, fragilities,
weaknesses, deficiencies, or lack of capacities that favor
adverse effects on the exposed elements.
This would also relate to lack of resilience of the systems to
adapt to the extreme situations.
 EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY
VULNERABILITY could also pertain to epidemiological and
psychological fragilities, ecosystem sensitivity, or the
conditions, circumstances, and drivers that make people
vulnerable to natural and economic stressors.
It is also the state of being capable of being harmed or
damaged. It is a measure of one’s ability to face natural
disasters.
 PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY
HUMAN VULNERABILITY.
Humans are vulnerable to environmental extremes of
temperature, pressure, and chemical exposures that can cause
death, injury, and illness. Typically, the most susceptible to any
environmental stressor will be the very young, the very old,
and those with weakened immune systems.
 PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY
AGRICULTURAL VULNERABILITY
Agricultural plants and animals are also vulnerable to
environmental extremes of temperature, pressure, chemicals,
radiation, and infectious agents. However, it is more complex
than human vulnerability because there is a greater number
of species to be assessed, each of which has its own
characteristic response to each environment stressor.
 PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY
STRUCTURAL VULNERABILITY
It arises when buildings are constructed using designs and
materials that are incapable of resisting extreme stress or that
which allow hazardous materials to infiltrate into the building.
 PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY
SOCIAL VULNERABILITY
It represents an important extension of previous theories of
hazard vulnerability. As a concept, social vulnerability has
been defined in terms of people’s “capacity to anticipate,
cope with, resist and recover from the impacts of a natural
hazard”. Refers to their susceptibility to behavioral changes.
Consist of psychological, demographic, economic, and political
impacts.
 PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY
Based on Section 3 of Republic Act 8425 it defines that there are
14 disadvantaged sectors in the Philippine Society, these include
the following:
1. Farmers
2. Fisherfolk
3. Workers in the formal sector and migrant workers
4. Workers in the informal sector
5. Indigenous people and cultural communities
6. Women
7. Differently-abled persons
 PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY
8. Senior citizens
9. Victims of calamities and disaster
10. Youth and student
11. Children
12. Urban poor
13. Cooperatives
14. Non-government organizations
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT VULNERABILITY
• Age
• Gender
• Income and or wealth and socio-economic status
• Education
• Governance
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT VULNERABILITY
Natural factors
• Design of a structure & materials used
• Settlement location
• Spacing
• Pacific Ring of Fire
• Rapid urbanization
• Air quality
 EXPOSURE
Exposure pertains to elements in the environment which
hazardous events may occur. A population or economic
resources may be at risk of exposure if it is potentially located
in a dangerous setting.
CHAPTER 3 – BASIC CONCEPT
OF HAZARDS
TYPES OF HAZARD
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARD
BIOHAZARDS are agents that may cause potential harm to
human health and other organisms. They are comprised of
microorganisms, pathogens, fungi and other substance that
produce biological effects.
BIOLOGICAL HAZARD
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARD
BIOHAZARD VECTORS they are the sources that transmit biological
haxards

6 GROUPS
• Bodily matters (infectious blood, sweat, urine, feces, saliva, etc.)
• Living animals and their products (meat, eggs, milk)
• Plant, fungi, molds, and plant products
• Microbiological cultures (tissue, bacteria, cell cultures)
• Biohazard waste
• sewerage
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARD
DIRECT transmission involves physical contact between an
infected and a vulnerable person.

INDIRECT transmission involves exposure to contaminated

food and water due to improper handling and storage and
unhygienic practices; contaminated substances and surfaces
wherein viruses remain; infections spread through air by
coughing and sneezing; and vectors or carriers of the viruses
that causes the diseases
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARD
Virulence is the ability of a parasite to situate in the human
body and thereby increasing the likelihood of infection.
However, virulence and infectivity are unnecessarily
dependent on each other.

Interaction plays a great role in spreading the impact of

biohazards.
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARD
Can range from:
Common
Endemic - A disease outbreak is endemic when it is consistently present but
limited to a particular region. This makes the disease spread and rates
predictable. Malaria, for example, is considered endemic in certain countries and
regions.
Pandemic - refers to a disease event in which there are more cases of a disease
than expected spread over several Page 4 countries or continents, usually
involving person-to-person transmission and affecting a large number of people.
Epidemic - epidemic as an unexpected increase in the number of disease cases in
a specific geographical area. Yellow fever, smallpox, measles, and polio
 RADIOACTIVE HAZARD
• Defined as the “transfer of energy through spaces away from a
source”
• Radiation hazards define the risks produced upon exposed
elements (living or non-living), may it be of long-term exposures or
short contact in minute quantities.
RADIOACTIVE HAZARD
 RADIOACTIVE HAZARD
IONIZING RADIATION harmful types of radiation are derived from,
are produced due to nuclear reactions.

NON-IONIZING RADIATION may also cause health risks like burns,

eye damages and electric shock that are less severe (X-rays, UV rays,
infrared)
 RADIOACTIVE HAZARD
Radiation hazards caused by these types of radiations include: DNA
destruction or fragmentation, hazards to biological systems,
electrical hazards and fire hazards.

Dielectric heating allows transfer of electric force without the use of

conduction, that cause burns to elements in contact.
 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
• Health risks from chemical substance is an outcome from direct
contact with a particular chemical, through inhalation or
consumption while physiochemical risks are solely reliant on the
physical and chemical properties of substance or material.
• Examples of these effects are air pollution (factories, combustion
of fuels and gases, and presence of carbon dioxide) and water
pollution (contaminants or spillage of unwanted substance)
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
• Flammable substances that are subjected to change easily and
evaporate rapidly. Due to large amount of vapor from the
vaporization process, these vapors mix with the atmosphere
causing it to burn
• Corrosives are materials that can ruin unprotected elements like
body tissues.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
• Oxidizing materials are materials that freely release oxygen that
aggravate a present occurrence of burning or enlarge possibility of
fire or explosion
• Explosive materials are actively unbalanced and emit an abrupt
expansion of a certain element complemented with a presence of
heat.
 PHYSICAL HAZARD
Is a hazard originating from the operational, occupation, or even
material characteristics of an insure property; or it may be a
substance or any materials for which there are valid evidences that it
is flammable, compressed, explosive, combustible, oxidizing,
unstable, or reacts to moisture.

Physical hazard is any condition – a substance or an activity – having

the potential to cause harm or adverse effect to the body. (Vibration,
noise, temperature, pressure, and radiation)
 NOISE
• Noise is considered a physical hazard for too much of it can have
negative impacts to the physical body.
• Temporary hearing loss and permanent hearing loss are some
examples of the impacts and risks of too much noise.
• Tinnitus is a condition wherein the person hears sound or ringing
in the ear without external sound present
 TEMPERATURE
• Sudden change in temperature also have crucial effects on the
human body.
• The risk of extreme temperature includes fatigue, nausea, dizziness
and headache, or difficulty in staying alert.
 CONFINED SPACES
• It refers to a space or area which by design has limited or small
opening for entry and exit; the space is not good and not designed
for long-time occupancy due to its unfavorable natural ventilation.
• This might contain or produce nasty air contaminants which might
be harmful and life-threatening
ERGONOMIC HAZARD
 ERGONOMIC HAZARD
• Ergonomic hazards are physical factors in the environment that occur
when the kind of work, position of the body and working conditions
put tension and stress on you body which causes adverse effects on
the body’s musculoskeletal system.
• Ergonomic injuries include sprains, strains, and other related
problems as well.
• Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTD) which affects the cervical spine
area, the lower back, arms, hands wrists, elbows, and shoulders
 ERGONOMIC HAZARD
ERGONOMIC HAZARD includes:
• Poor posture or body mechanics
• Carrying out tasks in the same motion for a long period of time
• Using physical force to lift heavy objects
• Being in a gawky position such as twisting your body to accomplish a
certain task, specially if repetitive
• Improperly adjusted workstations and chair
• Poor physical design of workspaces, workstations, and stools/chairs
 PSYCHOSOCIAL HAZARD
• A psychosocial hazard is a type of occupational hazard that influences
the mental health of workers, including their capability to partake in a
work environment among other people.
• It would be identified with those work designed, composed and
managed, and also those financial and social contexts of work and are
co-partnered with psychiatric, mental or physical damage alternately
ailment.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL HAZARD
• There are four types of impacts of psychosocial hazard:
• Psychological – can be attained by having occupational stress
• Physiological – hypertension, heart disease, musculoskeletal disorders, stress
induced bronchitis, mental illness, thyroid disorders, obesity
• Social -
• Behavioral or economic – lost in productivity
 SAFETY HAZARDS
• Safety hazard is the most common and will be current in uttermost
work environments at one time or another. They incorporate perilous
states that may cause injury, illness and death.
 SAFETY HAZARDS
SAFETY HAZARD CONSISTS OF:
• Spills with respect to floors or tripping hazards, such as blocked aisles or
ropes running crosswise over the floor
• Working from heights, including ladders, scaffolds, roofs, or other high
risks areas.
• Unguarded technologies and moving machinery parts; removed guards or
moving parts that a laborer might inadvertently touch.
• Electrical dangers like frayed colors, missing ground pins, inappropriate
wiring.
• Machinery-related dangers (lockout/tag out, heater, safety, forklifts, and so
on)
 NATURAL HAZARDS
• The term “natural hazard” is often used interchangeably with “natural
disaster” and “natural phenomena”.
• Natural phenomenon is naturally an occurring physical event that may
not affect humans.
• As defined by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies (IFRC), natural hazard is a “threatening event, or probability of
occurrence of a potentially damaging phenomenon within a given time
period and area”
• They are classified as geological, hydrological, atmospheric or
meteorological, and climatological
 GEOLOGICAL
• Seismic Hazards are caused by the shifting of the Earth’s crust due to the
movement of the magma underneath it (fault ruptures, ground shakes,
lateral spreading, liquefaction, and tsunamis)
• The sudden shifts in the crust create waves of energy called seismic
waves (seismic sea waves-seismic activity under the ocean floor)
 GEOLOGICAL
• Volcanic Activity. Volcanoes which are ruptures in the earth’s crust,
usually formed because of fault ruptures, are vents that release lava,
gases, and molten rocks from the magma chambers beneath the Earth’s
crust.
• Effusive eruptions the debris being spewed out by the volcano, usually in
the form of lava and lahar flows are the major hazard
• Explosive eruptions the energy of the explosion pose a huge hazard
• Pyroclastic flows also come from explosions, are highly destructive due
to their high temperature and velocities, and have vast mobility.
 GEOLOGICAL
• Landslide are triggered by natural force (earthquake, large amount of
rainfall, human activities – mining, deforestation, construction of
structures in a slope
• The amount of material that comes down range from small rocks and
mudflow, to huge boulders
 GEOLOGICAL
• Hydrological hazard include tsunamis, flooding and other related events
that may occur after the disaster (landslides), and drought.
• Storm surge is an unusual rise in the sea level which usually occurs
because of typhoons and storms
• Flooding is caused by the overflow of rives, heavy rainfall, and tsunami
aftermath
EARTHQUAKE
HAZARDS

GROUP 1
With our country being part of the countries that
lie along the Pacific Ring of Fire, earthquakes may
often happen. Thus, knowing more about
earthquake hazards will be a great help to all
people. According to (Girty, 2009), earthquake is
the tremor on the Earth's crust due to stresses in
the surface like the volcanic activity. Ground
displacement is shifting away from the original
area along the fault.
 GROUND SHAKING
CAUSED BY THE PASSAGE OF THE WAVES CALLED SEISMIC

WAVES NEAR THE EPICENTER OF THE EARTHQUAKE AND

THIS IS THE FIRST MAIN EFFECT OF AN EARTHQUAKE.

STRUCTURES CAN BE HARMED BY THE SHAKING ITSELF OR

BY THE GROUND UNDERNEATH THEM SETTLING TO A

DIFFERENT LEVEL THAN IT WAS BEFORE THE EARTHQUAKE.

THE INTENSITY OF THE GROUND
SHAKING DEPENDS ON:

1. Conditions of the ground

2. Duration and Intensity of the
earthquake
3. Distance
 GROUND RUPTURE
A SECONDARY IMPACT OF
AN EARTHQUAKE AND WILL
HAPPEN WHEN THE
MOVEMENT OF THE FAULT
WILL GET THROUGH THE
SURFACE.
 DANGEROUS EFFECTS
LIQUEFACTION
1. Unstable ground
Blending of sand or soil and groundwater amid the shaking
2.Affected
of a moderate or solid earthquake. At the point where the
constructions may
solid and water are blended, the ground turns out to be

delicate and acts like sand trap. After the earthquake happens, collapse and sink
the ground will solidify again, and the water will be down to underground
the standard spot. Liquefaction may happen in the zones that
3. Built construction
have groundwater and sand in the surface.
may tilt
 TSUNAMI
ALSO CALLED AS TIDAL WAVES. TIDAL WAVES ARE GIANT
WAVES THAT BRING ABOUT FLOODS AND AT TIMES MAY
REACH UP TO 100 FEET IN HEIGHT. THIS OCCUR BECAUSE
OF SUB-OCEAN FAULTING OF OCEAN FLOOR SENDING
SEISMIC WAVES THROUGH THE WATER AND MAKING
HUGE WAVES OF LOW AMPLITUDE YET OF LONG STRETCH,
MOVING AT 500-700 MPH. TSUNAMIS ARE MADE IN DEEP
OCEANS BY FAULT MOVEMENTS, VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OR
CALDERA COLLAPSES, LANDSLIDES, METEORITE IMPACTS,
AND THE LIKES.
 TSUNAMI
TSUNAMIS CAN BE RECOGNIZED THROUGH NATURAL SIGNS
SUCH AS WATER RECEDING FROM THE COAST, WHICH
RESULTS TO THE EXPOSURE OF THE OCEAN FLOOR, REEFS
AND MOVEMENTS OF FISHES CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS A
SIGN OF A TSUNAMI APPROACHING SHORELINES.

HAZARDOUS IMPACT ON OUR COMMUNITY:

1. TREMENDOUS HARM TO THE COASTLINE
2. ERADICATE AN ENTIRE COMMUNITY
3. MASSIVE DEATHS
 TSUNAMI
A Tsunami is composed of a wavelength, crest, amplitude,
trough and wave height. Amplitude is the highest
displacement from the undisturbed position of the crest.
Crest is the highest point of the wave while trough on the
other hand is the lowest point ofa wave. Wavelength is the
distance between two waves.
 LANDSLIDE
This is the movement of the rock, earth debris or earth down
an incline. It results from the failure of materials which make
up the landform slope and are driven by the power of gravity.
The events of quakes in steep ground shaking greatly accounts
to the probability of an avalanche because ground shaking
brought about by the expansion of soil materials, allows quick
infiltration of water.
 POSSIBLE EFFECTS

1. Damage to infrastructure
2. Death
3. Changes in surface landscape
 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

THERE ARE A LOT OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS EARTHQUAKES CAN

BRING TO MANKIND AND MOSTLY, THEY ARE HAZARDOUS. A
GREAT EXAMPLE OF THIS IS GROUND SHAKING. WHEN
GROUND SHAKING OCCURS, CRACKS OR EVEN THE COMPLETE
DESTRUCTION OF A BUILDING CAN HAPPEN. THIS IS BECAUSE
OF LIQUEFACTION WHEREIN THE GROUND SHAKING CAUSES
THE GROUND WATER AND SOIL TO MIX TOGETEHR WHICH
MAKES IT A LOT SOFTER THAN THE NORMAL SOIL THAT CAN
HOLD THE BUILDING TO ITS NORMAL LEVEL.
GROUND
DISPLACEMENT
THIS HAPPENS WHEN A STRUCTURE IS BUILT ON
TOP OR NEAR A FAULT LINE. WHEN EARTHQUAKE
OCCURS, THERE IS A GREAT POSSIBILITY THAT THE
STRUCTURES NEAR THE FAULT LINE WILL BE RIPPED
APART. THIS CAUSE GAPS ON THE GROUND.
 WEST VALLEY
FAULT
One of the biggest known
threats that can cause
earthquake in the Philippines
which is also known as "The
Big One".
LIST OF ACTIVE FAULT LINES IN
THE PHILIPPINES

1. MARIKINA VALLEY FAULT

2. WESTERN PHILIPPINE FAULT
3. EASTERN PHILIPPINE FAULT
4. SOUTHERN MINDANAO FAULT
5. CENTRAL PHILIPPINE FAULT
 PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

A ring of volcanoes and subduction zones surrounding the

Pacific Ocean. Known to have the most alarming volanic
eruptions and the biggest earthquakes that have ever
occurred. The countries along the ring are Chile, Mexico,
United States, Antarctica, Russia, Japan, New Zealand, Papua
New Guinea, Indonesia, Canada, Peru, Taiwan, and
Philippines.
 PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

It is the most active earthquake belt in the world. Because of

the lateral and vertical movement of rocks along plate margins,
earthquakes are mostly found here. The plates which are
constantly moving on the Earth's surface gives a tendency to
collide with one another or slide past each other. Shaking of the
ground is caused by the sudden movement of the plates which
results to havoc and destructions.
 WHAT TO DO AND SAFETY
TIPS IN THE EVENT OF AN
EARTHQUAKE?

Earthquakes can be destructive but everyone

who takes appropriate safety precautions can
minimize damages, injuries, and other potential
quake concerns.
BEFORE
1. Keeping a battery powered radio, flash flight, and
first aid kits
2. Learn first aid kits
3. Don't keep heavy objects in high shelves
4. Create discussions in school and at home about
earthquake safety
5. Conduct drills
6.Keep some food and water for drinking
7. Create emergency plan
DURING
1. Stay calm
2. Stay away from buildings
3. Get under a sturdy table and make sure one's head is covered
4.If indoors, stand against a wall near the center of a building
5. Stay away from windows and outside doors
6. In a high rise building, make sure to stand against a column
8. If outdoors, stay in an open place and keep away from overhead
electric wires and bridges
9. If inisde a moving vehicle, refrain from going to bridges and stay
inisde the vehicle until the earthquake stops.
AFTER 1. Check oneself and nearby people for
injury and provide first aid
2. Turn on the radio or TV for emergency
instructions
3. Reduce the use of phone lines
4. Stay out of damaged buildings
5. Wear helmets and gloves to protect
against shattered glass and debris
Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale
 1. 2.
Give one active fault Identify if BEFORE,
line in the Philippines DURING, or AFTER.
Keeping a battery
powered radio , flash
light and first aid kit.
 3. 4.
One of the biggest Give one earthquake
known threats that can hazard
cause earthquake in the
Philippines
 5. 6.
It is the blending of sand or Give a safety tip
soil and groundwater
during earthquake.
during the shaking of a
moderate or strong
earthquake.
 7. 8.
Also called as Tidal Waves. Duration and
intensity of the
earthquake depends
on its...
 9. 10.
What intensity is A ring of volcanoes
when buildings shift and subduction
off foundations? zones surrounding
the Pacific Ocean.
THANK YOU!
Volcanic hazards
 124

“
We are, all of us, growing
volcanoes that approach the hour
of their eruption, but how near or
distant that is, nobody knows- not
even God.

- Friedrich Nietzsche
 125

students are expected to:

1. Explain various volcano- 4. Interpret different

related hazards; volcano hazard maps; and

2. Differentiate among 5. Apply approriate

different volcano hazards; measures/interventions
before, during, and after a
3. Recognize signs of an volcanic eruption.
impending volcanic
eruption;
 126

volcanic eruption
➜ Volcanic eruptions happen when lava and gas are
discharged from a volcanic vent.

➜ Volcanic eruptions often cause temporary food

shortages and volcanic ash landslides called Lahar.

➜ The most dangerous type of volcanic eruption is

referred to as a ‘glowing avalanche’
 127

volcanic eruption
➜ Glowing avalanche - this is when freshly erupted
magma forms hot pyroclastic flows.

➜ Temperature is up to 1,200 degrees

➜ The pyroclastic flow is formed from rock fragments

following a volcanic eruption, the flow surges down at
speeds up to several hundred kph, to distances up to
10km and occasionally as far as 40km from the original
disaster site.
 1.
volcanic related hazards

Lahar
Ash Fall
Pyroclastic Flow
Ballistic Projectile
Volcanic Gases
Lava Flow
 129

lahar

➜ Lahars are fast flowing mixture of water and solid

particles consisting of rock, wood and debris from a
volcanic eruption (Pierson et al., 2014).
 130

lahar
➜ Two types of lahars can be observed during an
eruption.

Primary lahars Secondary lahars

➜ are triggered by ➜ are initiated by post-
various eruption- eruption erosion and
related mechanisms. displacement of
tephra or rock
fragments during
heavy rainfall.
 131

lahar
➜ The nature of lahars comes from their speed and
composition, factors which arise from its consistency
which can be either thick and viscous or more fluid.

➜ Lahars are capable of achieving speeds at 20 m/s on the

lower borders of volcanoes and can sustain velocities of
up to 10 m/s for more than 50 km away from the point
of origin (Pierson et al., 2014).
 132

lahar
➜ Not only fast flowing lahars are capable of
destruction, lahars with slower velocities can
submerge buildings and roads.
 133

ash fall
➜ Volcanic ash fall causes a range of impacts on a large
scale. Even small millimeters of ash fall has the potential
to be disruptive to different service utilities such as
electricity, communication networks, roads and airports
(Wilson et al., 2014).

➜ A study by Stewart et al. (2014), shows the

contamination of chemicals in water supplies does not
only makes the water undrinkable but also causes
corrosion in water tanks and pipes.
 134

ash fall
➜ Ash fall is also easily distributed, affecting areas
thousands of kilometers away from the point of
origin (Wilson et al., 2014). Several factors such as
size, compositions and the environment impact
how ash fall is distributed.

➜ Volcanic ash can persist in the environment for

years, sometimes decades (Horwell & Baxter., 2005).
 135

ash fall

➜ Health is also at risk during exposure to volcanic

ash. A study by Horwell & Baxter (2005), shows
that exposure to ash falls can cause trauma to the
eye, respiratory complications and mental health
concerns.
pyroclastic flow
➜ Pyroclastic flows are fluidized masses of rock fragments
and gases that move rapidly in response to gravity. It is
amongst the most dangerous of volcanic hazards
because of their rapid onset and potential
destructiveness.

➜ They can engulf human settlements with little warning,

and can cause large numbers of human casualties as
well as destruction of property and infrastructure
(Spence, Baxter, & Zuccaro, 2003).

136
 137

pyroclastic flow
➜ Pyroclastic surges are low-concentration
turbulent flows that form in at least three ways:

➜ (1) eruption ➜ (2) elutriation ➜ (3) directly from

column from the top of a crater without
collapse a moving an
(ground surge, pyroclastic flow accompanying
base surge (ash cloud) vertical eruption
column
 138

ballistic projectile
➜ One of the hazards associated with explosive
eruptions is the ejection of rock and magma
fragments that follow nearly parabolic trajectories
(Alatorre-Ibarguengoitia et al., 2006).

➜ These fragments are called volcanic ballistic

projectiles.

➜ They are the usually 10-15 cm.

 139

ballistic projectile
➜ Gravity and drag forces mainly determine their
trajectories before they impact the earth's surface.

➜ Due to its high temperatures and impact energies, it

threatens life, property, vegetation, and air navigation
(Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia et al., 2006).
 140

ballistic projectile
➜ In most cases, it is known to cause severe injuries and
even death. The volcanic ballistic projectile is usually
large enough to penetrate building materials such as
wood and concrete, and also its kinetic energy is
enough to damage aircrafts (Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia et al
2006).
volcanic gases
• It is generally accepted that volcanic gases play a
significant role on the atmospheric and climatic
processes (Vaselli et al., 2006).

• However, it could be harmful if its amount in the

atmosphere exceeds the normal level.

141
volcanic gases
• It is a mixture of gases which includes water
vapor, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur trioxide, sulfur
dioxide, sulfide, chlorine, and hydrogen chloride
(Aiuppa et al., 2007).

142
 143

volcanic gases
➜ Carbon dioxide is also
dangerous because its
density is 1.5 times
➜ Its component, greater than air and
carbon monoxide, causes asphyxia or
causes deaths deprivation of oxygen
because of its toxic resulting to
effects at very low suffocation and death
concentration. (Smith, 2013).
 144

lava flow
➜ Lava flow is the superficial outpouring of molten
rocks from a volcano.

➜ According to Smith (2013), it threatens human

life when they emerge rapidly from fissure,
rather than from central vent eruptions. Its
viscosity is caused by its silicon dioxide
component.
 145

lava flow
➜ Two types of lava flow:

pahoehoe lava aa lava

➜ the type that is ➜ moves downhill in

most liquid in form a block, slow-

and cool easiest moving manner
causing a relative and leaves behind
smooth and a rough irregular
wrinkled surface. surface.
 146

lava flow
➜ One of its most destructive case ever of a lava
flow was during the eruption of Nyiragongo
volcano on January 17th, 2002 (Komorowski et
al., 2004). Its effect has left tens of thousands of
the inhabitants homeless.
 2.
volcanic hazard
grid
volcanic hazard grid
ASH PYROCLASTIC BALLISTIC VOLCANIC LAVA
FLOW
LAHAR FALL FRAGMENT GASES FLOW
S
SUBSTANCE Volcani Powdery Lava Lava Rocks Toxic Gases Lava
c Tephra
Materia
l
+ Water
OCCURENCE During Immediate During and During During Anyti
eruptio ly after after eruption. eruption me
n, eruption. eruption. and/or
rainfall, through
and/or steam.
mixed 148
with
 3.
signs of impending
volcanic eruption
 150

According to the philippine institute of

volcanology and seismology (phivolcs):

(1) increased incidences of volcanic quakes,

(2) due to accumulation of entrapped ashes, the steam

activity increases and its color changes from white to
gray,

(3) crater blazed due to the presence of magma,

 151

(4) tilting, fissuring and inflation of the ground because

of the incursion of magma,

(5) occurrence of landslides and rockfalls not related to

heavy rains,

(6) prevalence of dying flora within the perimeter of the

volcano,

(7) there is an increase of temperature of the bodies of

water (e.g. hot spring, crater lake) near the area of the
volcano,
 152

(8) abnormal concentrations of chemical compounds

present in the bodies of water within the vicinity of the
volcano,

(9) the springs or wells around the volcano rapidly

evaporate.

(10) new thermal areas, including old ones, augment thus

leading to solfataras.

However, these signs may vary from one volcano to

another.
 4.
APPROPRIATE MEASURES/
INTERVENTIONS BEFORE,
DURING, AND AFTER
A VOLCANIC ERUPTION
 154

According to american red cross and

center for disease control and
Prevention, these are the following
things that need to be done in a
volcanic event:
 155

Before a volcanic eruption:

(1) Learn about your community warning systems and

emergency plans,

(2) Make evacuation plans,

(3) Develop an emergency communication plan, and

 156

Before a volcanic eruption:

(4) Prepare a survival kit that contains flashlight with
extra batteries, first aid kit with its manual,
emergency food and water, non-electric can opener,
essential medicines, dust masks and goggles for every
member of the household, and sturdy shoes.
 157

During a volcanic eruption:

(1) Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities,

(2) Avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream of

the volcano,

(3) Listen to a battery-operated radio or television for the

latest emergency information.
 158

During a volcanic eruption:

If trapped indoors:

(4) Close all windows, doors, and dampers,

(5) Put all machinery inside a garage or barn,

(6) Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters.

 159

During a volcanic eruption:

If trapped outdoors:

(7) Seek shelter indoors,

(8) If caught in a rock fall, roll into a ball to protect your

head,

(9) If caught near a stream, be aware of mudflows.

 160

After a volcanic eruption:

(1) Cover your mouth and nose so that irritation of
respiratory system can be avoided,

(2) Wear goggles to protect your eyes,

(3) Keep skin covered to avoid irritation from contact with

ash,

(4) Clear roofs of ash fall

(5) Avoid driving in heavy ash fall

 161

After a volcanic eruption:

(6) If you have a respiratory ailment, avoid contact with
any amount of ash,

(7) Stay indoors until local health officials advise it is safe

to go outside, and

(8) Remember to help your neighbors who may require

special assistance - infants, elderly people, and people with
disabilities.
 5.
INTERPRETING VOLCANIC
HAZARD MAPS
 163

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 1

DISTRIBUTION
OF VOLCANOES
IN THE
PHILIPPINES
 164

volcanic hazard maps

➜ The red markers

represent the active
volcanoes in our country.

➜ Some of the known

active volcanoes are
Mayon Volcano,
Mt. Pinatubo and
Mt. HibokHibok.
 165

volcanic hazard maps

➜ Meanwhile, the yellow

markers represent the
potentially active
volcanoes while the
green markers
represent the inactive
ones.
 166

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 2

RISKS OF
VOLCANIC
ERUPTIONS
IN THE
PHILIPPINES
 167

volcanic hazard maps

➜ The darker the shade

of color red is, the
more high the risk to
volcanic eruptions.
 168

volcanic hazard maps

➜ Figure 2 shows that

Albay and Sulu are
highest risk to volcanic
reaction. Thus, it can be
inferred, in relation to
the first map, that Mt.
Mayon and Mt. Iriga
have a high tendency to
erupt.
 169

➜ The following Hazard Maps show

representations of active volcanoes
in the country.
 170

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 3

MAYON
VOLCANO
ASHFALL
HAZARD MAP
 171

volcanic hazard maps

➜ The red circle

indicates the 6 km
permanent danger
zone

➜ The red broken

lines is also a part
of the danger zone.
 172

volcanic hazard maps

➜ The green area are

the most
susceptible to the
ashfall during
eruption

➜ Lighter color and

eventually yellow
are less susceptible
to the ashfall.
 173

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 4

MAYON
VOLCANO
LAHAR
HAZARD MAP
 174

volcanic hazard maps

➜ As it was
mentioned in the
hazard map for the
ashfall, the area
around the red
circle is the 6 km
permanent danger
zone.
 175

volcanic hazard maps

➜ The areas with red

shade will be the
most affected by
the lahar followed
by the violet and
lastly, the yellow
portion.
 176

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 5

MAYON
VOLCANO
LAVA FLOW
HAZARD MAP
 177

volcanic hazard maps

➜ It can be seen that

almost whole of the
6 km permanent
danger zone will be
engulfed by lava
during the eruption
of Mayon Volcano
thus, there should be
no residents living
within the area.
 178

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 6

MAYON
VOLCANO
PYROCLASTIC
FLOW
HAZARD MAP
 179

volcanic hazard maps

➜ Lastly, Figure 6
determines the
radius that the
pyroclastic flow
can affect.
 180

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 7

TAAL VOLCANO
BALLISTIC
PROJECTILES
HAZARD MAP
 181

volcanic hazard maps

➜ The blue lines represent

the lake around it while
the purple shaded area
is the potential area
which might be affected
by ballistic projectiles.
 182

volcanic hazard maps

Figure 8

PYROCLASTIC
AND LAHAR
HAZARD MAP OF
MT. KANLAON
 183

volcanic hazard maps

➜ The pyroclastic flow

reach is indicated by the
purple area while the
lahar is indicated by the
yellow area.
 184

IMPORTANCE OF
HAZARD MAPS
➜ Hazard map is a form of communication to the
public in relaying the potential dangers of
volcanic eruption (Haynes et al. 2007).

➜ Furthermore, it is also a way of conveying the

preventive measures that can be done in order to
mitigate the casualties in case of eruptions
(Nourbakshet al. 2006).
 185

APPROPRIATE MEASURES
BEFORE, DURING, AND
AFTER A VOLCANIC
ERUPTION
 186

Before a volcanic eruption:

➜ The best way to prepare for a volcanic eruption is
to have the knowledge about this natural disaster.

➜ If your house is located near an active volcano it

is best for you to always have a disaster
preparedness plan which includes an emergency
kit and an emergency evacuation plan.

➜ First thing to be cautious about is the ashes that

goes airborne and also the accumulated ashes.
 187

Before a volcanic eruption:

➜ A need for smoke detectors and fire extinguishers is
very important.

➜ Everyone should be aware of the evacuation route in

case of a volcanic eruption and always have a
supply of gas in your car because it will be much
easier to leave the area the fastest way possible.

➜ The most important thing in your emergency kit is

food and water because you never know if you are
going to be trapped long in your house or during
evacuation.
 188

During a volcanic eruption:

➜ The most important thing to do during a volcanic
eruption is always to keep yourself safe first then
help others when there is someone in need.

➜ Follow emergency plans especially from officials

and keep the hazard zones updated.

➜ If you are near a volcano during an eruption

quickly evacuate.
 189

During a volcanic eruption:

➜ If you are evacuating the place, make sure you
are wearing long sleeved shirts and pants.

➜ Wear goggles and emergency masks while you

are outside and hold a damp cloth over your
nose and mouth.

➜ If you are driving, make sure your car is only

under 35mph to avoid slipping.
 190

During a volcanic eruption:

➜ Stay away from fresh lava because burning

vegetations releases methane gas and might
cause an explosion.

➜ When encountering lahars, stay off from valleys

and low-lying areas. Seek high ground as quickly
as possible then plan where to evacuate next.
 191

During a volcanic eruption:

➜ If you are not evacuating, close all the windows and

other vents. Place towels under the door and gaps
as well.

➜ Make sure to always listen to the radio for updates

about the current situation in your area. Stay
indoors until further instructions. Do not attempt to
leave the place unless you are told to do so by the
authorities.
 192

After a volcanic eruption:

➜ Check if the air is already clear of volcanic ashes.

➜ Check the roof of your house, be aware that

ashes can put an excess weight on your roof
which needs to be removed as soon as possible
because the roof of your house might collapse.
 193

After a volcanic eruption:

➜ Make sure to wear a mask while cleaning.
Volcanic ash is different from regular dust, so to
remove volcanic ash from exterior home surfaces,
use free flowing water from a hose. Ash inside the
house should be removed using a vacuum
cleaner to make sure it is properly removed.

➜ Do not travel unless you have to. If ashes get into

your drinking water immediately find another
source of drinkable water
 194

HOW TO REDUCE VOLCANIC

HAZARD VULNERABILITY
how to reduce volcanic hazard vulnerability

1. Determination of all active volcanoes in the country

2. Detailed volcano-geological mapping of identified

active volcanoes and generation of volcanic
hazards maps

3. Volcano monitoring

195
4. Issuance of warning volcanic unrest
how to reduce volcanic hazard vulnerability

5. Effective information dissemination on anticipated

volcanic hazards before and during and forecasting

6. Creating team spirit among responding agencies

7. Complete monitoring, analysis, interpretation and

documentation of eruptive activities. eruption
products, secondary phenomena and impact areas
of erupting volcanoes 196
how to reduce volcanic hazard vulnerability

8. Determination of end of volcanic unrest

9. Land use planning and regulation

197
10 - ITEM QUIZ

198
 199

1. ___________ happen when lava and gas are discharged from a

volcanic heat.

a) Volcanic Eruptions
b) Lava Flow
c) Volcanic Gases
 200

2. ___________ are fluidized masses of rock fragments and gases

that move rapidly in response to gravity.

a) Lahar
b) Ash Fall
c) Pyroclastic flows
 201

3. Give one volcanic-related hazards.

4-5. What are the two types of lahars?

 202

6. ______ are fast flowing mixture of water and solid particles

consisting of rock, wood and debris from a volcanic eruption
a) Glowing Avalanche
b) Volcanic Gases
c) Lahars
 203

7-8. What are the two types of lava flow?

9. It is a form of communication to the public in relaying the

potential dangers of vulcanic eruption.

a) Phone
b) Computer
c) Hazard map
 204

10. Which of the following you should NOT do after a volcanic

eruption?

a) Clear roofs of ash fall

b) Drive in a heavy ash fall
c) Wear goggles to protect your eyes
THANK YOU !
 Other
LESSON 6
geological
hazards
 Topics to be
discussed:

- What is Geological Hazards

- Different Geological Hazards
- Causes of Geological Hazards
- Signs of Impending Geological Hazards
- Mitigation Strategies
 Geological Hazard
- are natural disasters causing great loss of
life and destruction of properties and
infrastructures.

- These include earthquakes, volcanic

eruptions, tsunamis, landslides and
sinkholes.
Rainfall-Induced
Landslides And
Sinkholes
 Landslides
▪ phenomenon where soil or rock is moved out of place along
a slope by gravitational forces usually on unstable slopes.
▪ can be caused by either natural or man-made reasons.
▪ occurs in response to triggering conditions such as storms,
earthquakes, or human activity (Ghiasi, V. et al, 2011).
▪ One factor that could trigger landslides is RAIN.
▪ known to be a naturally-occurring environmental hazard

212
 Rainfall-induced
Landslides
➢ are natural disasters that mostly happen in steep mountainous
areas.
➢ The sudden occurrence of this kind of disaster may cause
fatalities, environmental degradation, severe damage in public
construction and household properties (Brunetti et al, 2010)
➢ Some factors which influence landslide are usually natural; these
include slope angle, climate, weathering, vegetation,
overloading, geology, melting of accumulated snow, and slope
stability.

213
 Clear Cutting
- is a primary human cause wherein all kinds of trees
are uniformly cut down in a specific area.

- This method is hazardous as it destroys not only

trees, but also their roots

- Without the aid of mechanical root support, soil

runs off when it contains too much water.
Landslides can be:
Retrogressive landslides
- happen when the top layer of soil begins to slide down.

PIECEMEAL
- happen at smaller areas at a time.
-
LANDSLIDES
This is considered as less catastrophic compared to landslides
that cover large areas.

REACTIVATED LANDSLIDES
- happen when the area of a previous landslide incident is
disturbed, which results into the reactivation of another
landslide.
215
 Sinkhole
- derived from an evolution process, and different terms are also
used to describe the phenomenon.

- described as a sink, swallow hole, or cenote.

- defined as a closed depression where water sinks into the

ground, or an open hole where a stream sinks.

- It could also be a downward movement of ground materials, or

just a natural hole on the ground (Satarusga, P., 2011).
 Sinkhole
- occur in many areas throughout the world which could possibly
affect properties, and even human lives.

- could be naturally-occurring or man-made.

- A natural sinkhole is a closed depression in the ground surface,

caused by dissolution of soluble and insoluble rocks and soils.
 Three common
soluble rocks:

- ROCK SALT
- GYPSUM
- LIMESTONE

Rock salt and gypsum are more

soluble than limestone.
 TYPES OF SINKHOLES
dissolution sinkholes
- happen when a cavity is formed due to the erosion of soluble rock and carbonate. It
occurs as a result of a thin layer of topsoil over the rock. The formation of this type of
sinkhole may speed up due to running water.

COVER-SUBSIDENCE SINKHOLES
- occur when a large material covers a soluble rock and fills the voids of the rock and
leads to the erosion of the sediment downward resulting to small depressions which
varies in depth and length.

COVER-COLLAPSE SINKHOLES
- happen when a clayey material covers a layer of carbonate rock.
- a dangerous type of sinkhole considering its limited indication which is similar to
cover-subsidence, wherein it begins by fling voids in the sediment, but unlike the
other type, it shows no indication of a depression because of the cohesiveness of
the clayey material.
- When the limit is met, it win suddenly collapse which can be very destructive.
Signs of
impending
geological
hazards
 Some of the signs that can be seen
before a landslide include:

• ground (not typically wet) becomes saturated

• cracks or bulges on the street
• movement of soil away from foundations
• concrete floors tilting or cracking
• breakage in underground utilities
• leaning posts
• trees or fences
• sunken roadbeds
• increased turbidity and water levels in creeks
• decrease in water level of creeks after rain
• some unusual sounds which may indicate moving debris
221
 Geological Maps
- show us the location of geological features underneath the earths
surface in three-dimensional views.

- like any other map, they have their own set of symbols and codes that
must be understood so that it can be properly interpreted.

- GEOLOGIC FEATURES include the folds, tilts, faults, rock layers,

sediment, and soil units among many others. The special symbols,
lines, and colors help identify each type of feature.

222
➢ One feature that can easily be noticed in a geologic map is the
VARIETY OF COLORS. These colors represent different
geologic units which are the type of rock formations of a certain
age.

- Each geologic unit is also marked by a SET OF LETTERS. The

first letter, usually capitalized. indicates the geologic period the
feature is derived. To give an example:

I = Jurassic Period
T = Tertiary Period
Q = Quaternary Period

- A combination of capital letters may also be used if the rock

came from two different periods.
223
➢ NAMES are usually given to rocks in order to identify where the rock was first
studied or to describe where one might find the best representations of its
characteristics.

➢ Another feature that is noticeable is the different lines. Each type of line identifies a
different feature on the map. Thin lines that separate two different colors indicates
where rocks come in contact with each other, hence called CONTACTS.

➢ FAULTS are represented by a line much thicker than that of the contact.
Faults are where rocks break apart and move in different directions. Some of these
faults are still active.

➢ FOLDS are represented by lines thicker than contacts, but not as thick as that
of the fault. Folds are where a dip or a rise in the earth with a different age of rock
formation in the middle than the age of the rock in the outer edges can be seen.
Examples include basins and domes.

224
Lines can also indicate where land has been tilted; sometimes the land
gets turned on its sides due to earthquakes or other geologic events.

• STRIKE LINE is the long line in the symbol that shows where the land still
oriented horizontally.

• DIP LINE, the short line, shows which way the ground is tilted.

• The symbol also has a number, called DIP, which indicates in degrees
how much the land is tilted away from the horizontal.

• The lines are not always solid; sometimes they are dashed or
dotted.

• SOLID LINES indicate boundaries that are known for certain while the
DASHED LINES indicate uncertain boundaries. 225
L Mitigation strategies
A Shannon & Wilson judged the following to be the most influencing factors that contribute to
the risk of impacts related to landslides:

N (1) density of slides

(2) catchment area

D (3) slope height

(4) geology
(5) line closures
S The factors listed above are important in the effectiveness and efficiency of the development

L
of mitigation strategies.

Smelser (2014) listed down the typical mitigation strategies as:

I 1. Stabilization,
2. protection,
3. avoidance, and
D 4. maintenance and monitoring.

The North American railway company NSF addressed landslide-influencing factors by

E developing projects using the mitigation strategies listed.

S 226
Prevention and
Mitigation
227
 Prevention
- is one way of avoiding massive loss of lives to geological
hazards.
- This could be done by recognizing indicators of potential
sinkholes for it can reduce risks; this is followed by avoiding the
areas susceptible to sinkhole.
- This could be done through field surveys, geomorphological
mapping, interviews with the locals, and gathering information
from historical maps.
- One could also search for information on hydrogeological
pathways that include caves, springs, and swallow holes.

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• Several corrective measures could be done to prevent the formation of sinkholes, such as:
(1) preventing water withdrawal and the decline of the water table
(2) lining of canals and ditches
(3) using flexible pipes with telescopic joints
(4) controlling irrigation
(5) making the surface impermeable with geomembranes or geotextiles
(6) using efficient drainage systems and diversting system runoff
(7) remediating sinkholes and clogging swallow holes
(8) filling cavities in the soil of rock by grouting
(9) improving the ground by compaction and injection grouting to increase the strength and
bearing capacities of the soil
(10) construction of cutoff screens and grout curtains beneath dams to avoid ground water
circulation beneath structures.

• Aside from structural measures, non-structural measures should be done as well. These include
the following:
(1) insurance policies to spread the cost generated by sinkholes among the people affected
(2) monitoring the area susceptible to sinkholes
(3) educational programs oriented to inform people of the hazards of sinkhole occurrences,
(4) posting of warnings on the sinkholes and sinkhole-prone areas.
 "Land-Use Planning" or "Zoning

- It prevents the people from moving in or going into the hazard-

prone areas. For instance, constructing, developing of structures and
living beside the mountain which has high probabilities of rainfall-
induced landslide should not be allowed or recommended.

- Especially nowadays, rainfall-induced landslides are more likely to

happen, because more trees are being cut down for other purposes
causing rain water to penetrate the mountains. Hence, planting trees
is also one of the solutions to prevent these landslides. Of course, this
does not guarantee that landslides will not happen anymore, but it
certainly is a big help that we stop ourselves from being another
cause of natural hazards.

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 "Public Education and Training"

- training and learning programs about geological hazards

should be provided by the government or non-government, it
will be a big help to the people to recognize hazards, to prevent
damage and casualties and help people to become more
rational, because a lot of people lack the required knowledge
about the hazards and what it can do to them, also being
stubborn to follow the rule and listen to the advice of the
government. Both government and people have to be responsible
when it comes to this strategy both should do their part to make
things work. If the government and the people cooperate then it
will change the wrong perspective of some people and save many
lives.

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• "structural mitigation" can also be used to prevent losses due to
geological hazards, with the help of advanced technology and
science.
• For landslides caused by rain water, it can be prevented by drying the
soil. This process is called EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; wherein the water
will be transferred from the root to the leaves, then from the leaves
transpire to air. It can also be prevented through the drilling of holes,
then inserting water pipes called "PERFORATED PIPES" into the hole,
so that the water can be drained from inside to come out to the
surface, the drilling and insertion should slightly be inclined
depending on the slope of the place.

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 The Engineering strategy

Also, by putting heavy boulders at the toe of the mountain can help hold the
movement of soil from sliding. It creates a force to resist the unbalanced force
coming from the top. That is why sometimes removing some heavy objects
from the toe of the mountain can cause a landslide or even activate it. For a
sinkhole that might occur on the road or in front of a house, if it is not that too
wide and deep or not expanding, then it can be covered up by dry mix
concrete and clayey sand materials as soon as possible. Before the appearance
of sinkholes, there will be a sign of cracked mark, when noticed that it is still
expanding, it is advised to try and contact the responsible government
agencies and stay away from it, and warn people around to prevent from
crossing the hazardous area.

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 IT’S
QUIZ
TIME

¼ SHEET OF PAPER
1. ______ are natural disasters causing great loss
of life and destruction of properties and
infrastructures.
2. _____ phenomenon where soil or rock is
moved out of place along a slope by
gravitational forces usually on unstable slopes.
3. _____ Derived from an evolution process, and
different terms are also used to describe the
phenomenon.
 4-5 Give AT LEAST 2 signs of impending
geological hazards (LANDSLIDE)
6. _____ Are natural disasters that mostly
happen in steep mountainous areas.
7. ______ Is one way of avoiding massive loss of
lives to geological hazards.
 8. _____ shows us the location of geological features
underneath the earths surface in three-dimensional
views.
9. The Engineering Strategy or the _____ can also be
used to prevent losses due to geological hazards, with
the help of advanced technology and science.
10. _____ is a primary human cause wherein all kinds of
trees are uniformly cut down in a specific area.
 ANSWER KEY!
1. Geological Hazards
2. Landslide
3. Sinkhole
4–5. SLIDE 14 ANSWERS
6. Rainfall-induced Landslide
7. Prevention
8. Geological Maps
9. Structural Mitigation
10.Clear Cutting
THANK YOU!