Elseesy 2017

Energy Conversion and Management 135 (2017) 373–393
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman
Performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of a diesel engine

fueled by biodiesel-diesel mixtures with multi-walled carbon nanotubes
additives
Ahmed I. El-Seesy a,d,⇑, Ali K. Abdel-Rahman a,b, Mahmoud Bady a,b, S. Ookawara c
a
Department of Energy Resources Engineering, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST), 21934 Alexandria, Egypt1
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assiut University, Assiut 271516, Egypt
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, 13512 Benha, Qalubia, Egypt2
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In this work, the effects of adding Multi-Walled Carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) to Jojoba methyl ester-
Received 20 October 2016 diesel blended fuel (JB20D) on performance, combustion and emissions characteristics of a
Received in revised form 28 December 2016 compression-ignition engine were experimentally investigated. The JB20D with 10, 20, 30, 40 and
Accepted 29 December 2016
50 mg/l of MWCNTs were examined at different engine loads and speeds. Compared to pure diesel, the
use of JB20D without MWCNTs caused a slight decrease in the engine performance and an increase in
the engine emissions at most examined conditions. The MWCNTs–B20D blended fuel attained a maxi-
Keywords:
mum increase of 16% in the brake thermal efficiency and a decrease of 15% in the brake specific fuel con-
Jojoba methyl ester
Multi-walled carbon nanotubes
sumption at the dose level of 50 mg/l compared to JB20D. The MWCNTs-JB20D blended fuel also brought
Diesel engine about an enhancement in combustion characteristics where the peak cylinder pressure, the maximum
Heat release rate rate of pressure rise and the peak heat release rate were increased by 7%, 4%, and 4%, respectively, at
Engine performance the same dose level. According to the measured emissions, a significant reduction of engine emissions
Emissions characteristics was achieved at the dose level of 20 mg/l, where NOx, CO, and UHC were reduced by 35%, 50%, and
60%, respectively. According to the obtained results, the recommended concentration of MWCNTs in
JB20D was concluded to be 40 mg/l, which could give significant improvements in overall the parameters
of engine performance and emissions with a good balance between them.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction NOx and smoke emissions are still the major dilemma in the devel-
opment of diesel engines [1,2]. There are major approaches to
Diesel engines have been widely used in power generation sec- reduce diesel emissions; including engine design modifications,
tor, heavy machinery and public transportation due to their high combustion enhancement, and the use of treatment tools for
reliability, durability, and high fuel efficiency. There are two main exhaust gases [3]. The improvement of engine combustion appears
challenges to hold their positioning as one of the most common to be the most recommended technique; essentially because it
power generators. The first is related to the limited crude oil may require only small modifications of engine systems rather
resource on land. The second is concerned with the environmental than the use of new designs or the use of additional systems. This
pollution. It is hard to minimize the emission of nitrogen oxide approach is realized by regulating the fuel properties, improving
(NOx) and smoke simultaneously in diesel engines, due to the fuel injection, and/or adding fuel additives. In this regard, the use
trade-off relationship between them. Therefore, the control of both of biodiesel as an oxygenated fuel was found to be a promising
alternative to the conventional diesel fuel [4]. The biodiesel fuels
have significant benefits in terms of emission and resource. The
⇑ Corresponding author at: Ph.D. Student at Egypt-Japan University of Science utilization of biodiesel fuels can reduce the amount of diesel con-
and Technology (E-JUST). Assistant Lecturer at Benha Faculty of Engineering, Banha sumed, and smoke or particulate matter without major modifica-
University, Egypt.
tion of the engine. Consequently, such fuels have wide
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A.I. El-
Seesy). applicability to future vehicles as well as those in the present use
1
www.ejust.edu.eg. [3], where most biodiesel fuels exist in liquid form at ambient
2
www.beng.bu.edu.eg.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.12.090
0196-8904/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
374 A.I. El-Seesy et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 135 (2017) 373–393
Nomenclature
A surface area, m2 JB20D40MWCNTs mixture fuel (JB20D) + 40 mg of multi-walled

A(h) the instantaneous combustion chamber surfaces area, carbon nanotubes
m2 JB20D50MWCNTs mixture fuel (JB20D) + 50 mg of multi-walled
Ach cylinder head surface area, m2 carbon nanotubes
APC piston crown surface area, m2 L engine stroke, m
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials MWCNTs multi-walled carbon nanotubes
ATDC after top dead center N engine speed, rpm
B cylinder bore diameter, m NOx nitrogen oxides, ppm
CA crank angle, deg. p instantaneous in-cylinder pressure, bar
CO carbon monoxide, ppm T mean gas temperature, K
D100 pure diesel oil Tw wall temperature, K
EGT exhaust gas temperature, °C U internal energy, kJ/kg
EVC exhaust valve closed UHC unburned hydrocarbons, %
EVO exhaust valve opened V instantaneous cylinder volume, m3
hc heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K Vc clearance volume, m3
IVC inlet valve closed Vd displacement volume, m3
JME Jojoba Methyl Ester Vm mean piston speed, m/s
JB20D mixture fuel containing 20% JME + 80% D100 W work, kJ/kg
JB20D10MWCNTs mixture fuel (JB20D) + 10 mg of multi-walled dp/dh presser rise rate per crank angle, bar/deg.
carbon nanotubes dV/dh volume rise rate per crank angle, m3/deg.
JB20D20MWCNTs mixture fuel (JB20D) + 20 mg of multi-walled dQg/dh gross heat release rise rate per crank angle, J/deg.
carbon nanotubes h crank angle, deg.
JB20D30MWCNTs mixture fuel (JB20D) + 30 mg of multi-walled
carbon nanotubes
temperature, and hence, it can be readily stockpiled and trans- straight-chain wax esters in the range of C26–C48 with two double
ported. The most significant problem associated with biodiesel bonds, one at each side of the ester bond. It is not a triglyceride,
fuels is the use of edible oil as feedstocks for biodiesel production. making Jojoba and its derivative Jojoba esters more similar to
This problem may be represented in the competition with the edi- sebum and whale oil than traditional vegetable oils [8]. Accord-
ble oil market, which raises both the cost of edible oils and biodie- ingly, Jojoba oil and its derivatives have a great potential for use
sel. Therefore, to completely overcome the problems related to in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, lubricants, and many other applica-
food requirements all over the world, the biomass resources should tions [7]. The seed of Jojoba contains raw oil with the weight ratio
be non-edible [3]. The most recommended non-edible oils are more than 50%, and hence, pure Jojoba oil is a suitable feedstock for
those generated from plants that do not need a huge amount of biodiesel production. Furthermore, the choice of the Jojoba oil as a
water or can grow in the barren lands using wastewater [5]. biodiesel fuel is due to its availability in many countries, its low
Jojoba is a name that is becoming common as an industrial crop price, and its low chemical reactivity [6,8]. The raw Jojoba oil is
in some countries. At present, growers are producing this obscure converted into Jojoba Methyl Ester (JME) via transesterification
desert shrub in USA, Latin America, South Africa and many other process. It has many advantages as it performs under normal con-
countries. In addition, it can be grown in waste lands that are ditions and yields better quality biodiesel. The biodiesel produc-
not proper for food crops, and the cost of agriculture is extremely tion via transesterification depends upon many parameters, the
lower because these crops can still sustain reasonably high yield most important of which are type and amount of alcohol, type
without intensive care [2]. Also, the standard Jojoba water require- and the amount of catalyst, the reaction time, and reaction
ment per Feddan is about 1600 m3/year [6]. This means that Jojoba temperature.
shrub can be categorized as a low water requirement plant. The Few studies have examined the utilization of Jojoba oil as an
first endeavors to grow Jojoba in Egypt were initiated in 1976 with alternative engine fuel. Radwan et al. [10], Selim et al. [11] and
no success. In 1985, Food and Agriculture Organization adopted Selim et al. [12] confirmed the appropriateness of such promising
five years research and development program to introduce Jojoba fuel for diesel engines. However, as reported by many researchers
in Egypt and other Middle East Countries, as a new crop including [12–15], the utilization of Jojoba oil in diesel engines decreases the
adoption principles stages of appropriate new crop adoption [6]. engine brake thermal efficiency, increases the specific fuel con-
The results were not up to expectations owing to the failure of gen- sumption and the engine emissions, especially NOx emissions.
erating high yield shrubs by vegetative propagation as well as the Huzayyin et al. [13] studied the effect of Jojoba oil-diesel blended
shortage of agriculture technique know-how. However, a new fuel on the performance and exhaust emissions of the diesel
major project was started in 1990 to cultivate Jojoba and open engine. They used different blends of Jojoba-diesel fuel with vari-
new markets for its products. In May 1991, nine Feddans were able engine speeds and loads. They found that the engine power
planted by seeds and expansions are still continuing in the cultiva- output and brake mean effective pressure were reduced with the
tion of the jojoba plant [6]. Consequently, in recent years Jojoba oil addition of Jojoba oil to pure diesel fuel. Also, the brake specific fuel
has become the most genuinely Egyptian product [7]. From the lit- consumption (bsfc) was increased with increasing the Jojoba-
erature, most of the studies used various methods for extraction of diesel blending ratio. The reason was the decrease in the calorific
Jojoba oil from the seeds [8]. Those techniques are mainly mechan- value of the fuel blend with the rise of jojoba oil proportion in
ical pressing, mechanical pressing followed by solvent extraction, the mixture. They reported that the NOx and CO emission were
or solvent extraction only. Jojoba oil is mainly composed of slightly increased with increase in the Jojoba-diesel blend ratio.
A.I. El-Seesy et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 135 (2017) 373–393 375
This was attributed to the higher viscosity of Jojoba, which led to to biodiesel emulsion blends. This was attributed to the positive
poor atomization and reduced fuel-air mixing. Shehata and Abdel effects of nanoparticles, which led to a shortened ignition delay
Razek [14] investigated the performance and emissions of the die- and enhanced combustion characteristics. Also, the brake specific
sel engine fueled by sunflower (S100) and the blend of 20% Jojoba fuel consumption was significantly reduced, due to the improved
oil plus 80% pure diesel fuel (B20). The results showed that both of surface area-volume ratio and the enhanced fuel-air mixing which
S100 and B20 give lower brake thermal efficiency and higher speci- improved the combustion process. The NOx, CO, UHC and soot
fic fuel consumption due to the lower heating value of S100 and emissions were remarkably reduced due to the addition of
B100 (by about 18% for both of them) compared to diesel oil. Also, nanoparticles. The nanoparticle additives reduced the ignition
they found that the CO emission was increased for both S100 and delay, improved fuel droplet evaporation rate and enhanced com-
B20 compared to pure diesel fuel. This was attributed to the high bustion characteristics. Also, Basha and Anand [22] experimentally
viscosity and density of S100 and Jojoba oil that led to poor fuel studied the effects of the Carbon nanotubes (CNT) additives with
atomization and decreased evaporation rate, resulting in increased diesel emulsion fuel on diesel engine performance and emissions.
ignition delay. Saleh [15] investigated the effect of exhaust gas They used two concentrations of CNT with the aid of a mechanical
recirculation on engine emission from diesel engine fueled by and an ultrasonicator homogenizer. They found that the peak pres-
Jojoba biodiesel. He found that the NOx emission was increased sure and maximum heat release rate were decreased due to the
by 16%. This increase was due to the higher cylinder pressure for addition of CNT which shortened the ignition delay. Also, the addi-
Jojoba biodiesel, which led to increased gas temperature, resulting tion of CNT with diesel emulsion blends resulted in reduced bsfc,
in higher NOx emissions. Also, the author cited that the CO and owing to the higher surface area to volume ratio and improved
UHC emissions were increased due to the higher viscosity of Jojoba the fuel-air mixing. The NOx, CO, UHC, and soot emissions were sig-
biodiesel fuel, which led to poor atomization and distribution of nificantly decreased, due to the higher catalytic activity which
the fuel–air mixture. Also, Al-Widyan et al. [16] studied the use enhanced the combustion characteristics resulting in the improved
of pure Jojoba oil and 50/50 blends with diesel fuel in a diesel combustion process.
engine and compared the engine performance with pure diesel Basha and Anand [23] studied the effects of Alumina nanoparti-
fuel. They used three different values for injection pressure of cle additives with Jatropha biodiesel on diesel engine performance
185, 195, and 210 bar with variable speeds. The study results and emissions. They used two dose levels of Alumina nanoparti-
showed that the combustion of Jojoba oil and 50/50 blends cles. They found that the peak pressure, pressure rise rate, and heat
resulted in increased CO emissions at the 195 and 210 bar. Also, release rate were reduced. The bsfc was reduced with the addition
they reported that both of pure Jojoba and the blend led to higher of Alumina additives. Also, the NOx, CO, UHC, and soot emissions
NOx emission than pure diesel at 190 bar. were noteworthy decreased with the addition of nanoparticles.
Accordingly, to improve engine performance and reduce output The reason was the fast evaporation rate, enhanced ignition prop-
emissions, some studies have focused on the addition of nanopar- erties and improved surface area to volume ratio, resulting in a
ticles to biodiesel fuels. Such technique was thought to have posi- shortened ignition delay and improved combustion process. Fur-
tive impacts on the combustion characteristics of the biodiesel thermore, Basha and Anand [24] investigated the effects of the Alu-
fuels [17]. The reason for such effects was related to the fact that mina nanoparticle additives with diesel emulsion fuel on diesel
nanoparticles have a high surface to volume ratio and could act engine performance and emission experimentally. They used vari-
as a catalyst in the combustion zone as well as was confirmed to able dose levels of Alumina nanoparticles with the aid of a
have a significant possibility of emissions reduction [17]. Such mechanical and an ultrasonicator homogenizer. They found that
nano-additives also improve the radiative mass transfer properties, the peak pressure, maximum heat release rate and bsfc were
reduce ignition delay and improve the ignition temperature of the reduced. Also, the NOx, CO, UHC, and soot emissions were remark-
fuel in the combustion zone [18]. Correspondingly, the previous ably reduced with nanoparticle additives to diesel emulsion fuel.
experimental studies have been conducted with the addition of The reason was attributed to the positive effect of Alumina
nano-additives to biodiesel and diesel fuels to enhance the fuel nanoparticles, which shortened the ignition delay, enhanced fuel-
properties and engine performance, as well as to decrease the air mixing and improved the combustion characteristics.
engine emissions [18–32]. Ghafoori et al. [25] investigated the performance and emission
Selvan et al. [19] and Sajith et al. [20] investigated the effect of characteristics of a six-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine using
Cerium oxide additives (particle size 32 nm and dose level 25 ppm) Multi-Walled Carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs with an average size
in diesel and diesel-biodiesel–ethanol blends on the performance 5 nm) addition to diesel-biodiesel blended fuel. They used different
of diesel engines. They found that the dispersion of Cerium oxide concentrations of MWCNTs with the aid of ultrasonic homogeniz-
additives in the blend was improved by ultrasonic bath stabiliza- ers. They found that the engine power and torque were increased
tion technique. It was also concluded that the addition of nanopar- by 17% and 18%, respectively. The addition of MWCNTs led to
ticles into diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blends decreased the specific increased cetane number, resulting in higher combustion pressure
fuel consumption, increased the peak pressure and shortened the and torque. The bsfc was decreased by 38.5%, due to the addition of
ignition delay. Those performance improvements were attributed MWCNTs, which enhanced combustion characteristics of the
to the addition of Cerium oxide which promoted the combustion diesel-biodiesel blend. Also, they reported that the UHC and CO
process. Furthermore, the addition of Cerium oxide accelerated emission were decreased by 22% and 14%, respectively. This was
earlier initiation of combustion and caused a lower heat release attributed to the addition of MWCNTs, which enhanced the evap-
rate. The addition of nanoparticles into neat diesel and diesel- oration rate and shortened the ignition delay. Basha and Anand
biodiesel-ethanol blends decreased the smoke, CO, UHC and NO [26] investigated the effects of adding Carbon nanotubes to Jat-
emissions. The reason was attributed to enhanced mixing of fuel ropha biodiesel emulsion fuel. They used different dose levels of
with air, which led to an improved combustion process. Carbon nanotubes with the aid of mechanical homogenizer. They
Basha and Anand [21] studied the effects of the addition of Alu- found that the brake thermal efficiency was enhanced with the
mina nanoparticles with biodiesel emulsion fuel on diesel engine addition of CNT. The reason was attributed to the combined effects
performance and emissions. They used variable concentrations of of micro-explosion and secondary atomization phenomenon,
Alumina nanoparticles with the help of an ultrasonicator. They which enhanced the combustion rate. Another reason was due to
found that the peak pressure, pressure rise rate, and heat release the addition of CNT to the emulsion blends, which led to increased
rate were reduced due to the addition of Alumina nanoparticles evaporation rate and accelerated combustion process. Also, they
cited that the peak cylinder pressure and heat release rate were the NOx emissions for MWCNTs-blended biodiesel fuels were rela-
reduced due to the addition of CNT to the emulsion fuel, which tively lower than those of diesel oil. This was due to the reduced
resulted in shortened the ignition delay. The NOx, UHC, CO and soot ignition delay that resulted in lower heat release rates in premixed
emissions were reduced remarkably due to the addition of CNT to combustion phase and reduced peak temperature.
the emulsion blends. This was attributed to the positive effect of In another study by Selva et al. [31], they investigated the per-
CNT in the mixture, which led to remarkable fuel distribution in formance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine under var-
the combustion chamber and accelerated the combustion process. ious concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 ppm Cerium oxide
Mirzajanzadeh et al. [27] experimentally investigated the nanoparticles (CERIA), and Carbon nanotube (CNT) in Diesterol
effects of hybrid nanocatalyst additives containing Multi-walled (70% diesel–10% biodiesel–20% ethanol) fuel blends. They found
Carbon nanotubes and Cerium oxide nanoparticles on diesel engine that the brake thermal efficiency was increased by 7.5% with the
performance and emission. They used two blends of diesel- addition of CERIA and CNT in Diesterol blend compared to the Dies-
biodiesel mixtures (B5 and B20) with different concentrations of terol blended. The peak pressure was also increased, while the
hybrid nanocatalyst. They found that the engine power and torque ignition delay period decreased due to the addition of CERIA and
were increased by 7.81% and 4.91%, respectively. Also, the brake CNT in Diesterol blend. The maximum reduction in the UHC by
specific fuel consumption was decreased by 4.5%. The reason was 7.2% and smoke emissions by 47.6% was obtained at a dose level
owed to the addition of Cerium oxide nanoparticles, which acted of 50 ppm for each CERIA and CNT. The addition of CNT and CERIA
as a catalyst that supplied oxygen molecules in a chain reaction. in Diesterol did not make a significant reduction in the NOx emis-
This led to complete combustion of the unburned hydrocarbons sions. Mehta et al. [32], experimentally studied the combustion
and carbon monoxide, resulting in the improved combustion pro- characteristics, engine performance and emission parameters of a
cess. Another factor was related to the Cerium oxide additives constant-speed diesel engine with a single cylinder fueled by diesel
inhibiting the formation of carbon deposits, which led to reduced fuel with the addition of Aluminium and Iron nanoparticles. They
friction between the moving parts of the engine and thus reduced found that the addition of nanoparticles shortened the ignition
fuel consumption and increased power and torque. Also, the engine delay. The addition of Aluminium nanoparticles also resulted in a
emissions of NOx, CO, UHC, and soot were decreased by 18.9, 38.8, drop of peak cylinder pressures, increased brake thermal efficiency
71.4, and 26.3%, respectively. This was due to the addition of by 9% and a decreased bsfc by 7%. They reported reductions in CO
hybrid nanocatalyst with diesel-biodiesel blends that can release emission by 25–40%, and UHC emission by 4–8% respectively, with
oxygen molecule through the combustion process, which led to the additions of Aluminium and Iron.
complete combustion and consequently reduced emitted pollu- Furthermore another study by Sajeevan and Sajith [33], the
tants. Furthermore, Karthikeyan and Prathima [28] experimentally effect of adding Cerium oxide nanoparticles (size of 50 nm) into
studied the effects of the nanocatalyst additives containing Multi- the diesel oil on the diesel engine performance, with different dose
walled Carbon nanotubes and Cerium oxide nanoparticles on diesel levels varied from 5 to 40 ppm, was examined. They found that the
engine emissions. They used diesel-biodiesel mixtures (B20) with efficiency was increased by 5%, while the UHC and NOx emissions
two concentrations of nanocatalyst 50 and 100 ppm. They found were decreased by 45% and 30%, respectively, especially at higher
that the CO, UHC, and soot emissions were reduced. The oxygen loads. They found that the optimum engine performance was
molecules in the combustion process were provided by the achieved at a dose level of 35 ppm.
nanocatalyst additives, which resulted in a shortened ignition The above literature review showed that nano-additive-blended
delay and enhanced oxidation rate. Also, the NOx emission was biodiesels have a possibility to make positive impacts on the bio-
decreased, owing to the reduction of the peak pressure and tem- diesel combustion. Recently, few studies were found concerning
perature in the combustion chamber. the experimental investigation of the engine performance and
In another study by Banapurmath et al. [29], also investigated the exhaust emissions of nano-additive-blended Non-Edible
the performance and emission characteristics of the diesel engine Biodiesel-Diesel mixture. Therefore, the target of this work is to
fueled by biodiesel with the addition of Graphene, Silver, and investigate the effects of MWCNTs catalyst on the performance,
Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes. They used two concentrations of combustion and emission characteristics of a single cylinder direct
nanoparticles, 25 and 50 ppm. The results showed that the peak injection diesel engine fueled by the recommended Jojoba
pressure was increased, due to the addition of nanoparticles, which biodiesel-blended diesel fuel (JB20D). The MWCNTs were added
led to reduced delay period and earlier combustion as well. It was to the JB20D at five different concentrations of 10, 20, 30, 40 and
also attributed to the fact that Graphene nanoparticles have higher 50 mg/l. The combustion characteristics parameters such as cylin-
thermal conductivity and increased catalytic activity which in turn der pressure, pressure rise rate, mean gas temperature, gross heat
led to higher peak pressure. Also, they reported that the NOx, CO, release rate and mass fraction of burned fuel were considered. The
UHC and soot emissions were reduced due to higher surface to vol- engine performance parameters such as brake thermal efficiency
ume ratio and increased the evaporation rate of nanoparticles, (BTE), brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) and exhaust gas tem-
resulting in reduced ignition delay and enhanced combustion pro- perature (EGT) as well as CO, NOx, and UHC emissions were also
cess. Tewari et al. [30] studied the performance and emission of a investigated.
diesel engine with a single cylinder by using multi-walled carbon
nanotubes (MWCNTs) (with average size 10–30 nm) blended bio-
diesel fuels. They prepared the blend with mass fractions of 25 2. Experimental setup and procedure
and 50 ppm by using mechanical and ultrasonic homogenizers.
They concluded that the brake thermal efficiency of MWCNTs- The GUNT experimental test rig Model CT100.22 which consists
blended biodiesel fuels was better compared to that of pure biodie- of a single cylinder direct injection diesel engine of the technical
sel. This effect was attributed to the better combustion character- specifications summarized in Table 1 was employed as the test
istics of multi-walled carbon nanotubes, due to high surface area engine in the present work. The whole experimental layout
and reactive surfaces that contributed to higher chemical reactivity equipped with the necessary instruments to measure the different
to act as a potential catalyst. Additionally, the CO, UHC and smoke engine parameters is shown in Fig. 1. Asynchronous motor Model
emissions for MWCNTs-blended biodiesel fuels were lower than TFCP 132SB-2 with a maximum electric power output of 7.5 kW
those of pure biodiesel fuel. This was due to the catalytic activity is coupled directly to the test engine and mounted on floating bear-
of MWCNTs which improved combustion process. Furthermore, ings to measure the engine brake torque. The brake torque is mea-
Table 1 ±0.25% FS), which is fitted to the bottom of the glass tube. The
Technical specifications of the test engine. intake airflow rate was measured by the orifice meter, which is
Engine parameters Specification installed on the air inlet box. The inlet and outlet of the orifice
Engine model HATZ-1B30-2 are connected to a differential pressure manometer. The measured
Number of cylinders 1 differential pressure is displayed in Pa or as speed in m/s (with a
Bore, mm 80 scale from 0 to 28 m/s) and then converted to a volumetric flow
Stroke, mm 69 rate (with a range from 0 to 560 l/min) using a known measuring
Crank length, mm 34.5
Rod length, mm 114.5
orifice diameter of 20.6 mm. The ambient air temperature, exhaust
Displacement, cm3 347 gas temperature, and fuel temperature were measured using ther-
Compression ratio 21.5:1 mocouples. For this purpose, three calibrated thermocouple probes
Rated power, kW/rpm 5.4/3600 of type (K) are installed to measure such quantities. The outputs of
Idle speed, rpm 1000
the thermocouples were displayed on the digital screen/monitor in
Type of injection Direct injection
Type of cooling Air cooling °C. All the signal outputs from the force sensor, temperature ther-
Starting up Electrical mocouples, fuel flow meter sensor, air flow meter sensor, and
Oil capacity max-min, liters 1.1–0.6 speed sensor were sent to DAQ system which exists in CT100.22
unit. Then, the data was displayed on PC using LabVIEW software
(GUNT software).
sured using force sensor of Model FLINTEC ZLB-200Kg-C3. The out- The emissions were measured using an environmental combus-
put power of the asynchronous motor is consumed in return power tion analyzer (BACHARACH model ECA-450), which is a self-
unit existing in the CT100.22 control unit. calibrated exhaust analyzer. A pump sucks the exhaust gases to
The test rig provides a facility to measure the engine perfor- be analyzed and distributes the gases (O2, CO, UHC, and NOx) to dif-
mance at different operating conditions of engine load and engine ferent inbuilt electrochemical sensing cells. The technical specifi-
speed. The torque values are chosen and defined by a selector cations are as shown in Table 2. The cylinder pressure was
switch on the control unit (CT 100.22), which were displayed on measured by a Kistler piezoelectric pressure sensor of Model
a digital screen. The engine brake power was determined by mea- 6052C connected with a charge amplifier of Model GUNT
suring both the brake torque and engine speed simultaneously. The CT100.13. The proximity switch of model WACHENDORFF PNP-N.
speed was measured using the proximity sensor (WACHENDORFF O (for detecting the distance of 4 mm) is fitted to the engine shaft
of type PNP-N.O, Sn 4 mm, 10–30VDC, and 200 mA) which is fitted at the location of piston top dead center (TDC). Both signals from
to the coupling on device breaking represented on the digital the charge amplifier and the proximity were converted from ana-
display. log to digital data via DAQ of Model USB-AD16f that is installed
The fuel mass flow rate can be measured in two ways. The first on PC and controlled by LabVIEW software (GUNT software).
is done by recording the time required to consume a specific vol- The evaluations of the uncertainty in the current measurements
ume of the fuel contained in the glass tube with a scale in centime- were carried out following the procedure of Holman [34]. The
ters (measurement of fuel consumption is based on the relation, uncertainty in the measurement of bsfc, brake power, EGT and
1 cm = 4.8 cm3 fuel). The second is through using flow meter sen- engine speed were found to be 1.5%, 1%, 0.75% and 0.18%
sor (Huba control type 680- out signal 0–10 VDC, Accuracy (±2 rpm), respectively. The experimental test procedure discussed
GUNT Control Amplifier- TDC sensor

unit, CT 100.22 CT100.13 Exhaust
temperature sensor
USB-
DAQ Kistler pressure
Fuel transducer
sensor
Force
sensor Exhaust
gases
Speed sensor
PC with
GUNT
Software HATZ-1B30-2
Diesel Engine
Asynchronous ECA-450
motor Fuel line Exhaust gas
analyzer
Fuel tanks
Air Air box

inlet
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental test rig.

Table 2 Table 4
Technical specifications of ECA-450 exhaust gas analyzer. Comparison of fuel properties between diesel and biodiesel fuel[35,36].
Gas Measuring range Resolution Accuracy Fuel property Diesel Biodiesel

CO 0–4000 ppm 1 ppm ±5% of reading or ±10 ppm Fuel standard ASTM D975-14 ASTM D6751-12
CO2 0–20% by vol. 0.1% by vol. 0.5% of reading Flash point, °C, min 52 130
UHC 0–10% by vol. 0.01 by vol. ±0.3% of reading Kinematic viscosity,40 °C, mm2/s 1.3–4.1 1.9–6
O2 0–20.9% by vol. 0.01% by vol. ±0.3% Specific gravity, 15 °C 0.85 0.88
NOx 0–4000 ppm 1 ppm ±5% of reading or ±5 ppm Distillation temperature, 90%, % vol. 338 360
Stack temperature 20 to 1315 °C 1 °C ±2 °C recovered, °C, max
Probe tip 800 °C max – – Cetane number, min 40 47
temperature Water,% vol, max 0.05 0.05
Sulfur,% mass, max 0.02 0.05
Cloud point, °C, max -12 P12
in the current study starts by warming up the engine for about

10 min using diesel fuel in the main tank. Next, the fuel line was
switched on to use the test fuel. Then, the specified engine load Table 5
percentage was adjusted by regulating the torque value supplied Technical specifications of the used raw Jojoba oil [7].
to the force sensor on the asynchronous motor. After that, the rack Property Range
arm was used to control the required engine speed. Finally, the dif-
Freezing point 10.6–7.0 °C
ferent readings from the measuring devices for a particular test Melting points 6.8–7.0 °C
were recorded at steady state condition of the engine operation. Boiling point 398 °C
This step was repeated to cover the engine speed range at the spec- Flash point 295 °C
Specific gravity at 25° 0.863
ified load percentage; according to the test program summarized
Viscosity
in Table 3. At the end of a test, the engine was allowed to run using 25 °C 57.9 mm2/s
diesel oil for about 10 min, under no load at 1000 rpm to avoid 100 °C 27 mm2/s
thermal cracking and to ensure the engine fuel system was cleaned Viscosity index 232
of any residuals of the previously tested fuel. Flashpoint 295 °C
Iodine value 82 mg KOH/g oil
Average molecular weight of wax esters 606 kg/kmol
2.1. Biodiesel preparation
There are different standards for the fuel properties, and the Jojoba oil received from Egyptian Natural Oil Company.
most commonly used by the researchers is the ASTM standard. Methanol supplied by a local company with Purity > 99.8%,
Table 4 represents the ASTM standard properties of biodiesel and most commonly used due to availability, low cost, and its chem-
diesel fuel. The most critical fuel properties that affect engine per- ical and physical advantages (polar and shortest chain alcohol).
formance are the heating value, viscosity, boiling point, and cetane Potassium hydroxide (KOH) with Purity > 85%. It is a base cata-
number. One of the main drawbacks in the raw Jojoba oil proper- lyst which is widely used in the transesterification process.
ties is the oil viscosity which is about five times that of the stan-
dard biodiesel (see Tables 4 and 5). Therefore, the raw Jojoba oil The production process of Jojoba oil was carried out according
viscosity must be reduced before using it in the diesel engine. to the conditions summarized in Table 7.
The most commonly used method for converting heavy viscous oils Consequently, the transesterification process was conducted
to biodiesel is the transesterification process of animal fats, edible according to the following procedures:
and non-edible oils. Transesterification reaction of Jojoba oil wax
with methanol takes place according to Fig. 2 [9]. In the current One liter of raw Jojoba oil was slowly heated with water bath up
study, the biodiesel was produced from Egyptian Jojoba oil sup- to 100 °C, while the mechanical stirring was used at a speed of
plied from Egyptian Natural Oil Company using a small-scale 600 rpm to remove the moisture content in the oil as shown in
setup. The test setup consisted of a mechanical stirrer of Model Fig. 3(a).
Servo-dyne mixer head 50003-45 with three beakers and sensitive A constant fraction of the KOH catalyst (0.5% by weight) from
scale (Denver Instrument company, Model AC-12k). Also, the cera- the raw oil was dissolved carefully with methanol to form
mic hot plate (Start Scientific model SM26), and temperature ther- potassium methoxide.
mocouple type (K) was inserted into the flask and connected to a The prepared potassium methoxide was added to the heated oil
temperature thermometer (EXTECH Model AZ-8852) to display with stirring at a speed of 600 rpm. The addition process was
and monitor the reaction temperature. The manufacturer provided performed in two stages starting with 75% of the solvent while
the technical specifications, and fatty acid composition of the the remaining potassium methoxide was added after 10 min to
Egyptian Jojoba oil are listed in Tables 5 and 6 [7]. The materials get the best reaction rate. At the same time, the reaction tem-
used in the JME preparation process are summarized as follows: perature was kept at 60 ± 1 °C for all ranges of the reaction time
(2 h).
Table 3
After that, the product was left in a separating funnel for 12 h.
The experimental conditions. During this period, the product was separated into two layers
as shown in Fig. 3(b), the upper layer contains JME and the
Fuel type Brake Torque, Nm Speed, rpm
lower contains glyceride with a remaining impurity of the
D100 0, 4, 8 and 12 1500, 2000 and 2500 catalyst.
JB20D
As shown in Fig. 3(b), the separation process was not com-
JB20D10MWCNTs
JB20D20 MWCNTs pleted. To force the separation process to be accomplished,
JB20D30 MWCNTs the product was washed with warm water 4–5 times until
JB20D40 MWCNTs clean water was observed. The separation process is shown in
JB20D50 MWCNTs
Fig. 3(c).
Methyl Jojoboate Jojobal alcohol

Fig. 2. Transesterification reaction of Jojoba oil wax with methanol [9].
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GCMS-Model,

Table 6
Fatty acid composition of raw Jojoba oil [7]. QP2010Ultra, Shimadzu, Japan) fitted with 5MS column (30 m,
0.25 mmID, 0.25 lm) was used to study the chemical composition
Fatty acid Relative percentage %
of the Jojoba oil biodiesel product. Table 8 shows the GC–MS con-
Oleic (C18:1) 2.47 figuration used for Jojoba biodiesel analysis. The GC–MS of Jojoba
Linoleic (C18:2) 0.38
biodiesel is shown in Fig. 5. There were five main characteristics
Eicosenoic (C20:1) 46.8
Erucic (C22:1) 39.8
peaks of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) appearing by the reten-
Tricosanoic (C23:0) 2.09 tion time and the fragmentation pattern data of GC–MS analysis.
Lignoceric (C24:0) 6.27 These five peaks identified FAMEs as 9-Octadecenoic acid methyl
Nervonic (C24:1) 2.16 ester (E), Oleyl Alcohol, Cycloporopaneoctanoic acid 2-hexyl-
methyl ester, 1,19-Eicosadiene and 13-Docosenoic acid methyl
ester (Z). The identified FAMEs were verified by retention time data
and mass fragmentation pattern from previous studies [38,39].
The Jojoba methyl ester product may have some residual wash- Table 9 identifies the composition of the fatty acid methyl esters
ing water. Thus, this undesired water can be removed by heat- present in Jojoba biodiesel and their chemical formula.
ing the produced biodiesel up to 100 °C, as shown in Fig. 3(d).
The final Jojoba biodiesel product properties were measured 2.2. Nano-biodiesel-diesel mixture preparation
according to ASTM standard (see Table 11).
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are hollow cylinders of carbon atoms.
Biodiesel produced from raw Jojoba oil was analyzed by Fourier Their shape is of rolled tubes of graphene, such that their walls are
transform infrared (FT-IR), using a Bruker-Spectrum Model Vertex hexagonal carbon rings, and they are predominantly created in
70 in a wavelength range of 4000–400 cm1 to identify functional large bunches. The ends of CNTs are domed structures of six-
groups and the bands corresponding to different vibrations. The membered rings, capped by a five-membered ring. There are two
carbonyl group stretching vibration in FT-IR is affected by sub- types of nanotubes: Single-walled Carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)
stituent attached to it [37]. The biodiesel has two characteristically and Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), which diverge in
strong absorption bands arising from carbonyl (C@O) around the order of their graphene cylinders. SWCNTs have only one single
1750–1730 cm1 and that of CO (antisymmetric axial stretching layer of graphene cylinders; while MWCNTs have many layers
and asymmetric axial stretching) at 1300–1000 cm1 [37]. Fig. 4 (approximately 50) [40]. In the current wok, the MWCNTs-JB20D
shows the produced biodiesel absorption peaks appearing at blended fuels were prepared in two steps. First, the mechanical
1453.68 cm1 which is the methyl ester group (COAOACH3) and dispersion (PRO400DS Digital Benchtop Homogenizer, volume
the characterization peak at 1179.75 cm1 corresponding to range: 0.05 ml–30 l, speed range: 0–23,000 rpm) was used to pre-
(CAO) ester peak. The absorption peak appearing at 719.92 cm1 pare the homogeneous fuel mixture of MWCNTs-JB20D as well as
is representative to ACH2 rocking and the other one at to dismantle the agglomeration of nanoparticles. Then, MWCNTs-
1737.43 cm1 is representative to C@O ester stretch. The band JB20D blends were kept in an ultrasonic bath (Hielscher ultrasonic
appearing at 2927.71 cm1 and 2859.19 cm1 are due to methyl UP400S, 400 W and 24 kHz) set at a frequency of 24 kHz for 30 min
and methylene group stretching. The band represented at to enhance the stability of the fuel blend. The MWCNTs were dis-
3432 cm1 is related to AOHA group. The FT-IR spectrum is similar persed into biodiesel blend using ultrasonication pulsating fre-
to that reported for Jojoba biodiesel oil by Shah et al. [38]. quencies technique to avoid the nanoparticles agglomeration in
Table 7
Summarize conditions of transesterification process.
Catalyst and concentration Methanol to oil molar ratio Reaction time (h) Reaction temperature (°C) Mixing intensity (rpm) Washing times
KOH, 0.5 wt% 6:1 2 60 ± 1 600 4–5
Fig. 3. Jojoba oil and mixture appearance during preparation steps. (a) Material mixing. (b) Mixture after 12 h. (c) Washing process. (d) JME product.
From Table 10, the thermal conductivity of Multiwalled Carbon

nanotubes at room temperature is over 2000 times greater than
that of diesel-biodiesel blends. Thus, diesel-biodiesel blends con-
taining suspended Multiwalled Carbon nanotubes are expected to
exhibit significantly higher thermal conductivity relative to
diesel-biodiesel blends. Therefore, the evaporation rate of fuel dro-
plets will be increased, which in turn corroborates shorter ignition
delay. Also, the surface-area-to-volume ratio of MWCNTs is higher
than diesel-biodiesel blends. The aspect ratio (length/diameter) of
MWCNTs is between 102 and 103. Consequently, MWCNTs-
biodiesel-diesel fuels predictably have superior heat transfer prop-
erties compared to diesel-biodiesel blends.
The manufacturer provided the transmission electron micro-
scope (TEM), the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy
(HRTEM) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of
Fig. 4. FT-IR spectrum for Jojoba biodiesel oil. MWCNTs as shown in Fig. 6 [41]. A SEM is a type of electron micro-
scope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a
focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in
Table 8 the sample, producing various signals that contain information
GC–MS configuration.
about the sample’s surface topography and composition. Fig. 6(a)
Injector is the SEM image of the MWCNTs. The image shows that the sur-
Injection temperature 200 °C face of the MWCNTs is smooth. The TEM uses a high-energy elec-
Linear velocity 62.8 cm/s tron beam to image MWCNTs based on electron transmission. The
Sample size 1 ll length and dispersion state of MWCNTs can be assessed by TEM at
Split ratio 50
low magnification. At high magnifications, TEM can be used to
Column temperature program
Initial temperature 50 °C
count the number of walls in MWCNTs, measure inner and outer
Rate 1 15 °C/min–180 °C diameter, assess structural integrity and identify structural
Rate 2 7 °C/min–230 °C changes caused by surface modification. The TEM and HRTEM
Rate 3 10 °C/min–280 °C image of MWCNTs are presented in Fig. 6(b), which show the
Detector
MWCNTs in bundles with smooth surfaces. The nanoparticles were
Type Mass Spectrometer
Interface temperature 200 °C weighed according to the predefined mass fraction in the range of
Column 10–50 mg/l with steps of 10 mg. The turbidity procedure was uti-
Type HP-5MS (30 m, 0.25 mmID, 0.25 lm) lized to judge stabilization of the resulting suspension. Also, a sam-
Flow rate 3 mL/min ple of JB20D containing 50 mg/l MWCNTs was put in a long glass
tube under static conditions to monitor mixture stabilization.
There was no mixture separation observed for one week.
the fuel blend [27]. The MWCNTs of mean outer diameter in the The properties of the diesel base fuel, the received JME, JB20D
range of 10–15 nm (5–15 walls) with length ranging from 1 to and JB20D with MWCNTs were measured according to ASTM stan-
10 lm were supplied by Arkema Graphistrenght-C100 Company, dard and listed in Table 11. The most critical fuel properties that
France, with detailed specifications as listed in Table 10. affect engine performance are the viscosity, heating value, and
Table 9
Composition of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) of Jojoba oil biodiesel analyzed by GC–MS.
Peak# Retention time (min) Compound Formula

1 14.702 Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester C17H34O2, CAS No:112-39-0
2 15.99 9-Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester (E) C19H36O2, CAS No:1937-62-8
3 17.332 Oleyl Alcohol C18H36O, CAS No:143-28-2
4 17.634 Cycloporopaneoctanoic acid, 2-hexyl-, methyl ester C18H34O2, CAS No:10152-61-1
5 19.444 1,19-Eicosadiene C20H38, CAS No:14811-95-1
7 19.838 13-Docosenoic acid, methyl ester (Z) C23H44O2, CAS No:1120-34-9
8 22.514 Ethanol, 2-(9-Octadecenyloxy)-, (Z) C20H40O2, CAS No:5353-25-3
Fig. 5. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of Jojoba oil biodiesel.
Table 10 resulted in a shortened ignition delay period. Cetane number is

Details of multi-walled carbon nanotubes. used for comparing the ignition quality of fuels. The ignition delay
Item Specification decreases with the increase in cetane number with all the other
Manufacturer Arkema Company, France
parameters affecting ignition quality being the same. The cetane
Chemical name Multi-walled carbon nanotubes number is increased by about 5% for JB20D blend compared to die-
(Graphistrenght C100) Nanopowder, 90% sel fuel, while the cetane number is enhanced by about 8% due to
Average particle size 10–15 nm diameter, 1–10 lm’ length the addition of nanoparticles to JB20D blend (see Table 11). Oxygen
Surface area (SSA) 350 m2/g
content improves the combustion quality of fuel. On contrast, it
Purity >90%
Appearance Black decreases fuel heating value. The oxygen content in Jojoba biodie-
Density 0.05–0.17 g/cm3 sel is about 13% by mass. All of these properties affect and govern
Thermal conductivity 3000 W/mK the combustion behavior of JB20D as an alternative fuel in the die-
Mechanical tensile modules 1000 GPa sel engine and also shows the positive effects on the combustion
process with the addition of MWCNTs to JB20D blend.
cetane number. Viscosity is an important characteristic, as it affects 2.3. Heat release rate model
fuel atomization and operation of the fuel injection system. Fuel
atomization improves as fuel viscosity decreases. According to A zero-dimensional, single zone combustion model was used in
the properties of fuels (see Table 11), the JB20D blend has a higher this study. The purpose of this model was to understand the phe-
viscosity and molecular weight over those of diesel fuel by about nomenon that occurs during a combustion cycle, from the intake
22% and 18%, respectively, while the addition of nanoparticles into fuel entry to the end of exhaust process. The net heat release rate
the JB20D blend increases the kinematic viscosity by about 7%. The (dQnet/dh) and heat transfer to cylinder wall (dQwall/dh) are major
heating value for the JB20D blend is increased slightly by 0.25% parameters. These parameters were calculated using the measured
compared to diesel fuel, while the heating value is approximately cylinder pressure, p(h).
the same with the addition of nanoparticles into the JB20D blend
(see Table 11). The self-ignition temperature of the fuel is a critical 2.3.1. Model assumptions
ignition quality parameter. Lower self-ignition temperature To simplify the task, some assumptions were made [42]:
Fig. 6. Graphistrenght C100 Images – (a) SEM and (b) TEM.

Table 11
Properties of diesel oil, JME (B100), JB20D without and with MWCNTs samples.
Property Testing method Diesel oil JME (B100) JB20D JB20D10 JB20D20 JB20D30 JB20D40 JB20D50
MWCTs MWCTs MWCTs MWCTs MWCTs
Calorific value, kJ/kg ASTM D-240 45448 44866 45432 45439 45445 45451 45458 45460
Viscosity @40 °C, mm2/s ASTM D-445 3.34 11.72 4.06 4.1 4.19 4.25 4.31 4.35
Molecular weight, kg/kmol – 191.02 350.73 223.96 – – – – –
Specific gravity at 15.56 °C ASTM D-1298 0.8421 0.8645 0.8471 0.8471 0.8471 0.8471 0.8471 0.8471
Cetane index ASTM D-976 49.5 – 52 52.7 53.5 54.2 55.4 56
Initial boiling point, °C ASTM D-86 180 180 180 – – – – 190
Elemental analysis, % by mass PerkinElmer Elemental Analyzer – – – –
C% 86.21 76.01 – – – – – –
H% 11.59 10.05 – – – – – –
N% 1.91 Nil – – – – – –
O2% Nil 13.64 – – – – – –
S% 0.29 0.3 – – – – – –
The mixture inside the combustion chamber is homogeneous dp ðpi pi1 Þ

¼ ð6Þ
and has a uniform temperature and chemical composition dh ðhi hi1 Þ
The mixture behaves as an ideal gas
The cylinder mixture properties can be considered independent
The gases which are in crevices volume in the engine cylinder
or dependent on temperature. In the first case, a fixed value for the
can be neglected
specific heat ratio should be given; where the error may be high
The mass of the mixture is constant
leading to unacceptable results. On the other hand, the use of the
The fuel mass is neglected.
variable specific heat ratio c(T) has many advantages [43]:
To eliminate cycle–cycle variation, cylinder pressure data of 50
It indicates an acceptable level of accuracy the cylinder physical
consecutive cycles were collected and averaged for proper estima-
phenomenon such as the charge heat release during the com-
tion of cylinder pressure for heat release analysis. The heat release
bustion process and the heat exchange between gases and
calculations rely on the accuracy of the in-cylinder pressure data.
cylinder walls.
For internal combustion engine, the combustion process occurs
It has a simple mathematical formula without the necessity for
after inlet valve closing (IVC) and before exhaust valve opening
long and complex calculations.
(EVO). Thus, the first law of thermodynamics of a closed system
The implementation of c(T) function reduces notably the error
was used for calculating the heat release as shown in Eqs. (1)-(3)
resulting from a wrong choice of the constant value of c.
[42]:
dQ dW ¼ dU ð1Þ Therefore, specific heat ratio c(T) influences the shape and the
peak of the heat release rate diagram. The c(T) of the gases was cal-
dQ ch ¼ dU þ dQ wall þ DW ð2Þ culated using the following equation [43]:
where dQch is the ‘‘chemical energy” released by combustion, dQwall cðTÞ ¼ 1:35 6 105 T þ 108 T 2 ð7Þ
is the heat transfer to the chamber walls, dW = pdV, dU = m CV(T) dT,
dT = d(pV)/mR and R/CV = c 1, the total mass (m) is constant dur- With the help of the measured cylinder pressure and the calcu-
ing the combustion process. Therefore, it was reasonable to assume lated cylinder volume, the gas temperature (T) was calculated
that molecular weight (M) and the gas constant (R) for the reactants using the equation of state as follows [43].
and the products are equal. After rearranging the above terms, gross Tr p V
heat release rate was calculated using the first law-single zone T¼ ð8Þ
pr V r
model equation as follows [42].
All thermodynamic states (pressure pr, temperature Tr, volume
dQ gross cðTÞ dV 1 dp dQ wall Vr) were evaluated at a given reference condition such as IVC (pIVC,
¼ p þ V þ ð3Þ
dh cðTÞ 1 dh cðTÞ 1 dh dh TIVC, VIVC). TIVC and pIVC are temperature and pressure at IVC and
equal 350 K, and 1.013 ⁄ 105 Pa, respectively.
All parameters in the mathematical model of the gross heat
The rate of heat transfer from gases to cylinder wall was calcu-
release rate needed to be evaluated. The volume of the cylinder
lated using convection heat transfer equation as follows [42].
(V) and change in volume of a cylinder (dV/dh) were calculated

using engine geometry Eqs. (4) and (5) as follows [42]: dQ wall 1
¼ hc AðhÞ ðT T wall Þ ð9Þ
dh 6N
V c ðr c 1Þ 0:5
V ðhÞ ¼ Vc þ ðR þ 1 cosðhÞ ðR2 sin ðhÞ2 Þ Þ ð4Þ The heat transfer calculations are not very sensitive to the wall
2
temperature (Tw). The wall temperature of 450 K was estimated
R = L1/a where: a is the crank radius (m), L1 is the connecting rod and found to give satisfactory results [43]. The instantaneous com-
length (m). bustion chamber surfaces area A(h) consists of many surfaces area
The change in volume of a cylinder was calculated using the fol- as follows [42].
lowing equation [43].
AcyðhÞ ¼ Ach þ Apc þ AlatðhÞ ð10Þ
dV ðV i V i1 Þ
¼ ð5Þ 2
For flat-topped pistons, Apc = (p/4) ⁄ B . The lateral surface area
dh ðhi hi1 Þ
Alat(h) was approximated by the lateral surface of a cylinder, and Ach
The pressure change (dp/dh) with respect to the crank angle (h) was assumed to equal Apc. Thus, the instantaneous combustion
was calculated using cylinder pressure measurement as in Eq. (6). chamber surfaces area was calculated using these terms as follows:
p B2 pBL the location where the minimum pressure rise rate value occurs
AcyðhÞ ¼ þ in the first derivative after the start of injection (SOI).
4 2
0:5
The start of combustion can be defined when the heat release
R þ 1 cosðhÞ ðR2 sin ðhÞ2 Þ ð11Þ
rate becomes zero (that is, when the cumulative heat release
There are many models for heat transfer coefficient (hc). Thus, is at a minimum).
depending on the survey about the correlations used for estimat-
ing the convection heat transfer coefficient, many authors as In the current study, two methods for the start of combustion of
[44,45] proposed the use of Hohonberg correlation for diesel fuel have been tested to obtain the better technique. The start of
engine combustion analysis as it simultaneously needs simple combustion estimated using the pressure rise rate was comparable
calculations and gives accurate results. Therefore, the following to that achieved using the heat release rate. Therefore, the start of
correlation was used to estimate the convection heat transfer combustion for the different fuel types and operating conditions
coefficient [46]. was investigated using the pressure rise rate approach.
The value of the parameter (m) was calculated from Eq. (14) for
hc ¼ C 1 V 0:06 p0:8 T 0:4 ðC 2 þ V m Þ0:8 ð12Þ different fuels at an engine speed of 2000 rpm and 12 Nm load as
shown in Table 12.
where p is the instantaneous pressure in bar. The numerical values A MATLAB program was developed based on the above heat
C1 = 130 and C2 = 1.4, appearing in the above equation, are con- release rate equations, where the average pressure cycle data
stants established by six representative engines. under specific conditions (p-h) is supplied. The following parame-
ters were calculated; the pressure rise rate (dp/dh), the cylinder
2.3.2. Mass fraction of burned fuel temperature, the net heat release rate (dQn/dh), the rate of gross
One technique used in engine simulation modeling is to predict heat release (dQg/dh) and the mass fraction of burned fuel (Xb(h)).
the mass fraction burned as a function of engine crank angle using
the Wiebe function [42]. The Wiebe function is expressed in Eq. (13) 3. Results and discussions
[47]. The Wiebe function has a characteristic S-shaped curve and it
is commonly used to characterize the combustion process. The The thermal analysis, mechanical performance and the emis-
mass fraction burned shape increases from zero, where zero mass sion characteristics of a diesel engine using different fuels; includ-
fraction burn indicates the start of combustion, and then increases ing diesel and JB20D fuel blend with and without nanoparticle
to unity showing the end of combustion. The variance between additives (according to the test program in Table 3) are discussed
those two ends is known as the duration of combustion [42]. here. Based on the combustion data, cylinder pressure, pressure
mþ1 ! rise rate, gross heat release rate, cylinder temperature, and mass
h h0 fraction of burned fuel were plotted against crank angle. The
X b ðhÞ ¼ 1 exp a ð13Þ
hd mechanical performance parameters, such as bsfc, brake thermal
efficiency and EGT as well as the emission concentrations of NOx,
where Xb (h) is the burned fuel fraction at the instantaneous crank CO, and UHC were plotted against the engine load.
angle, a is a constant for a combustion duration corresponding to
0–99.9% mass fuel burned, and it is equal to 6.908, h0 is the position
3.1. Combustion characteristics
of the crank at the beginning of the combustion, and it is also called
the start of combustion (SOC), hd is the combustion duration, and m
3.1.1. Cylinder pressure
is a parameter that determines the speed of combustion and it can
The change of cylinder pressure as a function of the crank angle
be calculated by the following equation [47]:
during the end of the compression stroke and throughout the ini-
mþ1
1
tial part of the expansion stroke was recorded for the test fuels
hmax 1 m
smax ¼ ¼ ð14Þ as shown in Fig. 7. The use of the JB20D fuel blend led to a lower
hd 6:908 mþ1
value of peak pressure by about 5%, and its location was delayed
where hmax is the crank angle duration from the start of combustion compared with pure diesel fuel. According to JB20D blended fuel
to the position of Qgross maximum. characteristics, the reason can be attributed to the adverse effect
The start of combustion can be estimated by one or more of the of JB20D higher viscosity and molecular weight which leads to
following approaches [48]: inefficient utilization of fuel energy contents [9,13]. However, the
hindrance to receiving this peak value can be attributed to the
The start of combustion can be defined from the pressure record increase in the ignition delay period necessary to balance the effect
(p-h) diagram, when there is a rapid pressure rise, at the point of the high viscosity of fuel burned that worsens the processes of
where the pressure is rapidly increased and separates from fuel atomization and evaporation. These results were in good
motoring pressure. agreement with Shehata and Abdel-Razek [14].
By differentiating the pressure with respect to crank angle and The addition of MWCNTs to JB20D mixture led to accelerating
plotting the results, the start of combustion can be defined as combustion process. The MWCNTs has a higher thermal conductiv-
Table 12
The parameter (m) calculation for tested fuel at 2000 rpm and 12 Nm loads.
Fuel type Start of combustion, ATDC h at maximum Qgross, ATDC hmax hd m

D100 1 12 11 50 0.8083
JB20D 2 12 10 52 0.7070
JB20D10MWCNT 1 13 12 52 0.8489
JB20D20MWCNT 0 12 12 52 0.8484
JB20D30MWCNT 2 11 9 48 0.6898
JB20D40MWCNT 1 13 12 52 0.8489
JB20D50MWCNT 1 13 12 52 0.8489
75 improved the fuel droplet atomization and the combustion pro-

2000 rpm cess. Also, the addition of nanoparticles enhanced the heat of reac-
70
tion and increased the peak pressures. Ghafoori et al. [25],
65
Mirzajanzadeh et al. [27], and Banapurmath et al. [29] had
60 obtained similar results when using MWCNTs additives to diesel-
Pressure, bar
55 biodiesel blended fuel. At the engine speed of 2000 rpm, the peak
50 cylinder pressure for the JB20D fuel observed was 64.4 bar,
whereas it was 67.3, 68.4, 65, 67.5, and 69.4 bar for the
45
JB20D10MWCNT, JB20D20MWCNT, JB20D30MWCNT,
40 D100 JB20D40MWCNT, and JB20D50MWCNT fuels respectively.
JB20D
35 JB20D10MWCNT
It is important to observe the peak pressure (pmax) and its crank
30 JB20D20MWCNT angle location (hmax). These parameters were collected to get a real
JB20D30MWCNT indication of how fast and where the end of the heat liberation was
25 JB20D40MWCNT
TDC JB20D50MWCNT achieved during the combustion process. Fig. 8 represents the peak
20 pressure and its location at various operating conditions and differ-
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 ent fuel blends. The results presented in this figure reveal that the
Crank angle,deg. position where the maximum cylinder pressure was attained for
the tested fuels have the same trends with the engine speed but
Fig. 7. The variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle at 2000 rpm and 12 Nm
load for different tested fuels.
with different values. However, for JB20D blended fuel, this posi-
tion was retarded in comparison with that for D100, due to the
high viscosity effect. Also, for all the tested fuels, the position of
ity which is about 2000 times greater than that of JB20D blends. pmax decreased with the increase in engine speed due to mixing
Also, the cetane number is increased by about 8% due to the addi- and combustion process improvements as a result of higher turbu-
tion of MWCNTs to JB20D blend. Therefore, the evaporation rate of lence intensities. An increase in the engine speed led to decrease in
fuel droplet is increased, which resulted in a shortened ignition the ignition delay period, which resulted in an advanced combus-
delay. Another factor is the higher surface area to volume ratio of tion process and pmax occurred earlier as well. These results were
Multi-Walled Carbon nanotubes, which enhanced the heat transfer in agreement with Shehata and Abdel-Razek [14]. The addition of
between the particles and the fuel droplets. This effect, in turn, MWCNTs into JB20D blended fuel resulted in an advanced position
74 16
D100 D100
73 JB20D JB20D
15
Position of Pmax ATDC, deg.
JB20D10MWCNT JB20D10MWCNT
72
Peak pressure, bar
71 JB20D30MWCNT 14 JB20D30MWCNT
70 JB20D50MWCNT JB20D50MWCNT
69 13
68
12
67
66 11
65
10
64
63 9
1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Engine speed, rpm Engine speed, rpm
10
Pressure increase percentage, %
JB20D10MWCNT
9 JB20D20MWCNT
JB20D30MWCNT
8 JB20D40MWCNT
JB20D50MWCNT
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Engine speed, rpm
Fig. 8. The peak pressure and its position and the percentage increase of the cylinder pressure for different tested fuels at all engine speeds and 12 Nm load.
of pmax. This result is attributed to the improved evaporation rate blend and JB20D with nano-additives under 12 Nm load at differ-
and high atomization rates, resulting in shortening of ignition ent engine speeds. For JB20D, the maximum rate of pressure rise is
delay. The maximum advancement of the position of peak pressure slightly lower than that for pure diesel oil. This effect is due to the
occurred at the nano-additives dose of 30–50 mg/l. laminar burning velocity for JME which is found to be lower than
At the engine speed of 1500 rpm, the maximum cylinder pres- that for diesel oil [10], which leads to the decrease in heat release
sure for the JB20D fuel noticed was 70.55 bar, while it was 70.7, rate and consequent reduction in the pressure rise rate. These
71.99, 71.2, 72.3, and 73.28 bar for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/ results were in good agreement with Selim et al. [11]. The addition
l of MWCNTs fuels, respectively. A similar trend for an engine of MWCNTs into JB20D fuel blend led to the increase of fuel droplet
speed of 2500 rpm was obtained, where the peak cylinder pressure evaporation rate, and better fuel-air mixing. Therefore, the overall
for the JB20D fuel observed was 64.5 bar, while it was 65.9, 66.4, combustion process improved leading to higher peak pressure rise
66.3, 65.9 and 67.1 bar for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of rate compared to JB20D fuel. This effect could be due to the cat-
MWCNTs fuels, respectively. From Fig. 8 it can be observed that alytic behavior of nanoparticles during the combustion process
the percentage increase in the cylinder pressure at the engine leading to higher cylinder pressure as well as higher rate of pres-
speed of 1500 rpm was 0.21, 2.04, 0.92, 2.48 and 3.86% for the sure rise [24–26]. From Fig. 10, the maximum increase in the pres-
10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, respectively com- sure rise rate was 2.41, 2.42, 2.40, 3.03, and 3.02 bar/deg for the 10,
pared to the pure JB20D mixture fuel. Also, at the engine speed 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, respectively at the engine
of 2000 rpm, the percentage increase of the cylinder pressure speed of 1500 rpm. Also, at the engine speed of 2000 rpm the max-
was 4.50, 6.21, 0.93, 4.81, and 7.76%, while at the speed of imum increase in the pressure rise rate was 2.91, 2.94, 2.93, 3.19,
2500 rpm it was 2.17, 2.94, 2.79, 2.17 and 4.03% for the 10, 20, and 3.20 bar/deg for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs
30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, respectively compared to fuels, respectively. A similar trend at the engine speed of
the pure JB20D blended fuel. In addition, at all speeds of the engine 2500 rpm has been obtained, where the peak increase in the pres-
the maximum values of the peak pressure were obtained at a con- sure rise rate was 2.85, 2.93, 2.94, 3.22, and 3.27 bar/deg for the 10,
centration of 40–50 mg/l of MWCNTs compared to pure JB20D 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of the MWCNTs fuels, respectively. These
blend. results could be attributed to the increased fuel evaporation rate
that led to a decrease in the ignition delay period.
3.1.2. Pressure rise rate
The shape of the pressure rise rate curve relies on the condition 3.1.3. Mean cylinder temperature
of the combustion process, whether it is either fast or slow. Under The average value of cylinder temperatures of burned and
normal conditions, the position of peak pressure rise rate takes unburned gas existing in the combustion chamber during a cycle
place after TDC but not too far [42], [48]. The point of attainment is called mean gas temperature. The gas in the cylinder is the mix-
of the peak pressure rise rate indicates that the main part of the ture of burned and unburned fuel-air mixture. Mean gas tempera-
heat release rate due to premixed combustion mode has taken ture determines the rate of reaction through the combustion of
place. This peak value of the pressure rise rate is followed by a sev- fuel, and it is desirable that the value is closer to the adiabatic
ere fall in the rate of pressure rise and a steady value of dp/dh [42]. flame temperature. Adiabatic flame temperature is the tempera-
The rate of pressure rise is a direct indication of the rate at which ture obtained from the products of combustion if the reaction is
the heat is released and thus the degree by which the reaction pro- adiabatic and no loss of thermal energy takes place in any other
ceeds. Accordingly, the value of the peak pressure rise rate is an manner, ensuring that all the heat released assist in growing the
important design parameter that reflects on the dynamic limits products of combustion to a possible peak value [49]. The flame
to be resisted by different engines components [42]. Such rate is reaches the cylinder wall farthest from the engine injector by
the differential of the cylinder pressure data with respect to the about 15° after TDC [49]. At this point, the maximum pressure is
crank angle. The discrete pressure values are numerically differen- reached, but the combustion process is not completed. It continues
tial as seen from Eq. (6). around parts of the chamber periphery for another few degrees of
Fig. 9 represents the variation of pressure rise rate with the crank angle [49]. Therefore, the peak temperature was achieved at
crank angle when the engine is fueled with pure diesel, JB20D about 15° after the maximum pressure was obtained as shown in
Figs. 11 and 12. The variation of mean cylinder temperature with
a crank angle for the engine operated with pure diesel oil, JB20D
4 without and with MWCNTs at the engine speed of 2000 rpm and
D100
2000 rpm & 12Nm load 12 Nm load is represented in Fig. 11. It was observed that the max-
JB20
Pressure rise rate, bar/deg.
3 JB20D10MWCNT imum value of mean gas temperature was about 1.5% lower for
JB20D20MWCNT JB20D fuel blend compared to the pure diesel oil. The lower mean
JB20D30MWCNT
JB20D40MWCNT
gas temperature for JB20D blended fuel was because the pressure
2 JB20D50MWCNT is less than that of diesel oil as discussed above in Section 3.1.1.
Using the MWCNTs led to an increase in the peak mean gas tem-
1 perature compared to the JB20D mixture. The reason is the positive
effect of nanoparticles which turned into improving the combus-
tion process.
0
From Fig. 12 at the engine speed of 2000 rpm, the peak
mean cylinder temperature for the JB20D fuel observed was
-1 1854 K, whereas it was 1868, 1818, 1792.9, 1928.2, and 1992.9 K
TDC for the JB20D10MWCNT, JB20D20MWCNT, JB20D30MWCNT,
-2 JB20D40MWCNT, and JB20D50MWCNT fuels, respectively. At the
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 engine speed of 1500 rpm, the maximum mean cylinder tempera-
ture for the JB20D fuel noticed was 1997 K, while it was 2029,
Crank angle,deg.
2062.5, 2027, 2055, and 2100 K for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and
Fig. 9. The variation of the pressure rise rate with crank angle at 2000 rpm and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, respectively. A similar tendency for an
12 Nm load for different tested fuels. engine speed of 2500 rpm has been obtained, where the maximum
3.4 8
D100
Position of dP max. ATDC, deg.

JB20D
3.2 JB20D10MWCNT 7
JB20D20MWCNT
dP/d max., bar/deg.
JB20D30MWCNT
3.0 JB20D40MWCNT
JB20D50MWCNT 6
2.8 5
D100
2.6 4 JB20D
JB20D10MWCNT
JB20D20MWCNT
2.4 3 JB20D30MWCNT
JB20D40MWCNT
JB20D50MWCNT
2.2 2
1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Fig. 10. The peak pressure rise rate and its position for various tested fuels at all engine speeds and 12 Nm load.
2250 3.1.4. Gross heat release rate

2000 rpm The total amount of energy release rate (commonly called gross
Mean cylinder temperature, K
2000 heat release rate) due to fuel combustion is the sum of the net heat
release rate leading to temperature rise rate of the cylinder gases,
1750 D100
JB20D plus the heat transfer to the engine cylinder walls. The variation of
1500 JB20D10MWCNT gross heat release rate (dQg/dh) as a function of crank angle for
JB20D20MWCNT
JB20D30MWCNT engine fueled by diesel oil, JB20D mixture and JB20D with
1250 JB20D40MWCNT MWCNTs at 12 Nm load and an engine speed of 2000 rpm is rep-
JB20D50MWCNT
resented in Figs. 13 and 14. The results showed that the heat
1000
release rate is negative during the ignition delay period. This is
750 mainly due to the cooling effect caused by fuel vaporization and
heat losses to the engine cylinder walls [29]. The peak gross heat
500 release rate for JB20D is slightly low compared to pure diesel oil.
TDC This is due to the higher molecular weight value, and the lower
250
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 laminar burning velocity of JB20D blended fuel compared to pure
diesel oil [9]. The gross heat release rate is higher for the MWCNTs
Crank angle,deg.
blended JB20D fuels compared to the JB20D blends only. This may
Fig. 11. The variation of the cylinder temperature with crank angle at 2000 rpm be attributed to the improved effect of surface area to volume ratio,
and 12 Nm load for different tested fuels. higher thermal conductivity and the enhanced ignition properties
of MWCNTs, which initiated the combustion early leading to
mean cylinder temperature for the JB20D fuel observed was increased peak value of the gross heat release rate compared to
1792 K, while it was 1808, 1750, 1809, 1837 and 1809 K for the the JB20D blended fuel.
10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, respectively. Also, From Fig. 14, at the engine speed of 2000 rpm, the peak gross
at all speeds of the engine the maximum values of the mean gas heat release rate for the JB20D fuel was 25.7 J/deg, whereas it
temperature were obtained at a concentration of 40–50 mg/l of was 26.4, 25.3, 25, 26, and 28.5 J/deg for the JB20D10MWCNT,
MWCNTs compared to pure JB20D blend. JB20D20MWCNT, JB20D30MWCNT, JB20D40MWCNT, and
2400 35
Peak mean cylinder temperature, K
D100
JB20D
Position of Tmax. ATDC, deg.
2200 JB20D10MWCNT 30
JB20D20MWCNT
JB20D30MWCNT
JB20D40MWCNT 25
2000 JB20D50MWCNT
20
1800 D100
15 JB20D
JB20D10MWCNT
1600 JB20D20MWCNT
10 JB20D30MWCNT
JB20D40MWCNT
1400 JB20D50MWCNT
5
1200 0
1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Fig. 12. The peak temperature and its position of the various tested fuels at all engine speeds and 12 Nm load.
35 engine speed of 2000 rpm with 12 Nm load is shown in Fig. 15.
2000 rpm It can be observed that 10, 50, and 90% of the fuel mass for D100
30 burned faster than that for JB20D blended fuel at all engine loads.
D100
This trend may be due to the higher viscosity of JB20D that led to a
25 JB20D
dQg/d , J/deg.
JB20D10MWCNT delayed commence of the combustion process. The addition of

20 JB20D20MWCNT MWCNTs into JB20D blended fuel accelerated the start of combus-
JB20D30MWCNT
JB20D40MWCNT tion as described in Section 3.1.1 and reduced the combustion
15 JB20D50MWCNT duration. This is due to the positive effect of the additives which
increased the evaporation rate and improved the mixing of fuel
10
with air, resulting in a reduction in the ignition delay. The mini-
5 mum combustion duration was achieved at the nanoparticle con-
centrations of 20–30 mg/l.
0
3.2. Mechanical performance
-5
-30-25-20-15-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
The mechanical engine performance in terms of fuel economy
Crank angle,deg.
factors is represented by the engine thermal efficiency and/or bsfc.
Fig. 13. The variation of the gross heat release rate with crank angle at 2000 rpm Fig. 16 shows the variation of bsfc and the engine brake thermal
and 12 Nm load for different tested fuels. efficiency with different engine speed at 12 Nm load. It can be
noticed that the engine bsfc using JB20D slightly increased by
about 12% rather than the corresponding value when pure diesel
JB20D50MWCNT blends, respectively. From Fig. 12 at the engine fuel is used no matter the engine speed. The main parameters that
speed of 1500 rpm, the peak gross heat release rate for the JB20D affect the bsfc are the fuel heating value and the combustion effi-
fuel noticed was 28.7 J/deg, while it was 29.24, 29.33, 28.8, 29.5, ciency or the utilization of the fuel energy. In this regard, the effect
and 30 J/deg for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, of the heating value was not comparable with other effects as its
respectively. Also, for engine speed of 2500 rpm, the peak gross variation is minimal in this case. Therefore, the main parameters
heat release rate for the JB20D fuel noticed was 29 J/deg, while it that affect the bsfc are those which affect the combustion quality
was 29.2, 28.9, 28.5, 29.6, and 29 J/deg for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and of the fuel. These parameters include the fuel viscosity and molec-
50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, respectively. Also, the maximum values ular weight. As discussed in the previous sections, the higher vis-
of the gross heat release rate were obtained at a concentration of cosity of JB20D led to poor fuel atomization which led to an
40–50 mg/l of MWCNTs compared to the JB20D blend for all engine increase in the amount of fuel burned in the diffusion mode, result-
speeds. ing in lower combustion efficiency. From the molecular weight
point of view, the fuel that has a higher molecular weight needs
3.1.5. Mass fraction of burned fuel more time and energy for the fuel degradation process and conse-
Mass fraction burned is the fraction of burned injected fuel rel- quently increase in the ignition delay period. As a result, the time
ative to the whole mass of fuel injected per cycle during the com- available for the combustion process will be reduced and conse-
bustion process [47]. In another expression, the percent mass quently the combustion efficiency will also be reduced. These
fraction burned is a reference to the proportion of fuel burned in descriptions were confirmed by the increase in the CO and UHC
the combustion chamber during the combustion process. When emissions in case of JB20D, which will be described in the next sec-
combustion of the fuel-air mixture in diesel engine begins, a single tion. Furthermore, these results were in agreement with Shehata
flame front travels through the instantaneously injected fuel until and Abd-Elrazik [14].
it gets fully burned. During fuel combustion, the combustion zone Generally, the addition of MWCNTs improves the engine perfor-
can be divided into burned and unburned zone. As the combustion mance. This influence can probably be noticed by the improved
proceeds, the burned zone part increases, and the unburned zone cylinder pressure characteristics (see Figs. 7 and 8) in the presence
decreases. The variation of fuel mass burned fraction with CA for of nanoparticles, as described in Section 3.1.1. MWCNTs additives
diesel oil, JB20D blend mixture and JB20D with MWCNTs at an improve the carbon oxidation in the engine, leading to efficient
31 13
ATDC, deg.
30 12
dQg/d max., J/deg.
29 11
g/d max
28 10
27 D100
9
Position of dQ
JB20D D100
JB20D10MWCNT JB20D
26 8 JB20D10MWCNT
JB20D20MWCNT
25 7
JB20D50MWCNT
24 6
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Fig. 14. The peak gross heat release rate and its position of the various tested fuels at all engine speeds and 12 Nm load.
100 35
Crank angle positionATDC, deg.

2000 rpm, 12Nm 2000 rpm, 12 Nm
Mass fraction of burned fuel, %
90
30 D100
80 JB20D
D100 JB20D10MWCNT
70 JB20D 25 JB20D20MWCNT
60 JB20D20MWCNT JB20D40MWCNT
JB20D30MWCNT
20 JB20D50MWCNT
50 JB20D40MWCNT
JB20D50MWCNT 15
40
30 10
20
5
10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 -10 10 30 50 70 90 110
Crank angle ATDC,deg. Mass fraction of burned fuel , %
Fig. 15. The mass fraction of burned fuel and its position for 10%, 50% and 90% for tested fuel at 2000 rpm with 12 Nm.
500 50 500 50
D100 1500rpm D100
JB20D
2000rpm 45
JB20D 45 450
450 JB20D10MWCNT
Thermal efficincy, %
JB20D10MWCNT
JB20D20MWCNT 40 JB20D20MWCNT 40
JB20D30MWCNT
JB20D30MWCNT 400
BSFC, g/KWh
400 35 JB20D40MWCNT 35
bsfc, g/KWh
JB20D40MWCNT
JB20D50MWCNT
JB20D50MWCNT
30 350 30
350
25 25
300 300 20
20
250 15 250 15
10 10
200 200
5 5
150 0 150 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Torque, Nm Torque, Nm
500 50
D100 2500rpm 45
JB20D
450 JB20D10MWCNT
JB20D20MWCNT 40
JB20D30MWCNT
400 JB20D40MWCNT 35
bsfc, g/KWh
JB20D50MWCNT
350 30
25
300 20
250 15
10
200
5
150 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Torque, Nm
Fig. 16. The difference of the engine thermal efficiency and the brake specific fuel consumption with engine speed and torque.
combustion process and reduction in the fuel consumption [24,25]. respectively. A similar trend for an engine speed of 2500 rpm and
All these benefits permit better usage of the chemical energy. At 12 Nm load was obtained, where the bsfc for the JB20D fuel
the engine speed of 1500 rpm and 12 Nm load, the bsfc for the observed was 240.3 g/kW h, while it was 240.2, 222, 230.2, 198.8
JB20D fuel observed was 235.6 g/kW h, whereas it was 230.1, and 200.7 g/kW h for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs
232.5, 196.2, 230.3, and 223.5 g/kW h for the JB20D10MWCNT, fuels, respectively. Also, it can be seen that the maximum reduc-
JB20D20MWCNT, JB20D30MWCNT, JB20D40MWCNT, and tion in the bsfc was obtained at a concentration of 40–50 mg/l of
JB20D50MWCNT fuels, respectively. At the engine speed of MWCNTs compared to the JB20D blend for all engine speeds. In
2000 rpm and 12 Nm load, the bsfc for the JB20D fuel noticed that way, the bsfc was decreased by up to 15% or the efficiency
was 241.6 g/kW h, while it was 242.6, 237.6, 235.9, 216.1, and was increased by up to 17%. These results had good agreement
237.5 g/kW h for the 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/l of MWCNTs fuels, with that found in the literature [26,28].
500 500
D100 D100
450 JB20D 450 JB20D
JB20D10MWCNT 1500rpm JB20D10MWCNT
2000 rpm
EGT, °C
300 300
EGT, °C
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Torque, Nm Torque, NM
500
D100
450 JB20D
JB20D10MWCNT 2500 rpm
400 JB20D20MWCNT
JB20D30MWCNT
350 JB20D40MWCNT
JB20D50MWCNT
EGT, °C
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Torque, Nm
Fig. 17. Variation of EGT with engine speed and torque.
With respect to EGT, it can be seen from Fig. 17 that the use of when D100 was used irrespective of the engine load. This trend
JB20D led to a lower value of EGT compared to D100. This minor may be attributed to the oxygen content of Jojoba methyl ester
difference is due to the delay in combustion resulting from slower (since it contains 13% O2), which increases the amount of oxygen
combustion characteristics of the JB20D blended fuel. The addition available for combustion and thus the growth in the reaction tem-
of nanoparticles into JB20D reduced the EGT, as shown in Fig. 17 no perature leading to an increase in thermal NOx emissions (Zel-
matter the engine operating conditions. This reduction in the EGT dovich mechanism). These results were in good agreement with
with the increase of dose concentration proceeds until a certain Radwan et al. [10] and Shehata and Abdel Razek [14]. The addition
dose; then EGT begins to rise again. The addition of MWCNTs of the MWCNTs to JB20D led to a decrease in NOx emissions com-
reduced the bsfc as discussed above and consequently reduced pared to the JB20D blends only. This behavior is attributed to the
the energy content, which in turn reduced the global exhaust gas catalytic effect of MWCNTs that accelerates the combustion pro-
temperature. As observed in the study results, the addition of cess to be completed forming the final products (heterogeneous
MWCNTs significantly improved the cylinder combustion process. combustion) with a minimum thermal break-down of the hydro-
Therefore, the required amount of fuel to produce the designated carbon compounds. Thus, the presence of lower active radicals is
engine load at specific engine speed decreased, which reduces dropping the potential of the thermal NOx formation. This catalytic
the bsfc as shown in Fig. 16. Correspondingly, the energy content behavior decreases with the engine load and hence cylinder tem-
of the engine cylinder reduces, and thus the global temperature perature increases. Such effect increases the change of thermal
of exhaust gases decreased. Another reason is that the addition NOx formation. Correspondingly, the maximum reduction of NOx
of MWCNTs reduces the rich mixture zone in diffusion mechanism emission was recorded at the MWCNTs concentration of 20 mg/l
which leads to a reduction in the exhaust gas temperature [22]. All at all loads and speeds. These results were confirmed by Ghafoori
values of EGT were found to lie between the corresponding values et al. [25], Basha and Anand [22] and Mirzajanzadeh et al. [27].
obtained when the nanoparticles dose of 30 mg/l added to JB20D The change of CO and UHC emissions with respect to the engine
was used and those obtained when pure diesel fuel was used. torque is shown in Fig. 19. Using JB20D led to a considerable
These results were in good agreement with Basha and Anand [22]. increase in both CO and UHC emissions compared to pure diesel
fuel. The reason for this influence may be due to the prolonged
3.3. Emission characteristics delay period and higher values of viscosity of JB20D that disturb
the fuel atomization and vaporization and thus, a longer time
From Fig. 18, the NOx emissions for JB20D at different engine was required to attain complete combustion. Another reason
speeds and torques were considerably higher than those recorded may be due to the incorrect combustion of layers approaching
400 400
D100
1500 rpm D100 2000 rpm
350 B20 350 B20
JB20D10PPM
JB20D20PPM JB20D10PPM
300 JB20D30PPM 300 JB20D20PPM
JB20D40PPM
250
NOx, ppm
JB20D50PPM 250
NOx, ppm
JB20D50PPM
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
400
D100
B20
2500 rpm
350
JB20D10PPM
JB20D20PPM
300 JB20D30PPM
JB20D40PPM
NOx, ppm
250 JB20D50PPM
200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Torque, Nm
Fig. 18. The variation of NOx emissions with engine speed and torque.
the cylinder wall. These layers would carry a great fraction of 2000 and 2500 rpm, the superior engine performance was
hydrocarbons which escape from the denser and longer- obtained at the MWCNTs additive level of 40–50 mg/l. Further-
penetrated fuel spray in case of JB20D, and hence more UHC was more, the highest NOx and CO emissions reduction observed for
emitted in the exhaust gases. all engine speeds have been achieved at 20 mg/l dose concentra-
The MWCNTs additives had a remarkably positive effect on CO tion. While at all engine speeds, the highest reduction of UHC
and UHC emissions. The reason for this may be owed to a short- emission was achieved at the MWCNTs doses of 20–40 mg/l. In
ened ignition delay and the improved ignition characteristics of addition, from the above discussion for the combustion character-
MWCNTs together with the high catalytic activity of nanoparticles istics Section 3.1 it can be concluded that the 40–50 mg/l concen-
due to their higher surface area to volume ratio and enhanced fuel- tration of the MWCNTs gives the maximum values in pmax, dp/
air mixing in the combustion chamber [21,24]. At all the tested dhmax, and dQg/dhmax. From the results of the whole investigation,
engine speeds the best reduction of UHC emission was recorded it is necessary to select only one dose level of MWCNTs. Accord-
at the MWCNTs doses of 20–40 mg/l. At the engine speed of ingly, the most appropriate dose level was selected based on the
1500 rpm, maximum reduction of CO emissions was obtained at following features:
the MWCNTs concentration of 40–50 mg/l, while the MWCNTs
concentration of 20 mg/l gave the highest reduction of CO emission The dose level should lead to optimal or at least concentration
at the engine speed of 2000 and 2500 rpm. These results were con- not deteriorate the mechanical performance of diesel engine.
firmed by Ghafoori et al. [25], Karthikeyan and Prathima [28], and The dose level should improve the engine emission characteris-
Tewari et al. [30]. tics to achieve new emissions norms.
In accordance to that and by comparing the overall effect of the
3.4. Recommendations of MWCNTs concentration MWCNTs additives, it can be concluded that the appropriate
engine performance and emissions characteristics were simultane-
Fig. 20 represents the summary of the results indicating the ously reached at a concentration of 40 mg/l. These results have a
effect of MWCNTs addition to JB20D compared to pure JB20D fuel good agreement with Sajeevan and Sajith [49].
on engine performance and exhaust emissions. It can be clearly
seen that; at an engine speed of 1500 rpm and 12 Nm load, the 4. Conclusion
maximum increase in the thermal efficiency and maximum reduc-
tion in bsfc were obtained at the MWCNTs additive level of 30– The combustion analysis, performance, and emission character-
40 mg/l. From the same point of view at the engine speed of istics of a direct injection compression ignition engine fueled with
700 0.06
D100
B20 1500 rpm 1500rpm
600 JB20D10PPM 0.05
JB20D20PPM
JB20D30PPM
500 JB20D40PPM 0.04
JB20D50PPM
CO, ppm
UHC, %
400 0.03
300 0.02
200 0.01
100 0.00
0 -0.01
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
700 0.06
D100
2000 rpm D100
2000 rpm
600 B20 0.05 B20
500 JB20D30PPM 0.04 JB20D30PPM
CO, ppm
UHC,%
400 0.03
300 0.02
200 0.01
100 0.00
0 -0.01
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
700 0.06
D100 2500 rpm
600 B20 D100 2500 rpm
0.05 B20
JB20D10PPM
500 JB20D20PPM
JB20D30PPM 0.04
400 JB20D40PPM
CO, ppm
JB20D50PPM
UHC, %
0.03 JB20D50PPM
300
0.02
200
0.01
100
0.00
0
-0.01
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fig. 19. The variation of CO and UHC emissions with engine speed and torque.
the JB20D mixture with and without the addition of MWCNTs were combustion, which resulted in higher gross heat release rate
investigated at different engine speeds and loads. The present work and advancement of the peak gross heat release rate.
recommended the use of nanoparticles that enhanced the overall The brake thermal efficiency increased with the addition of
performance of engine fueled by biodiesel-diesel mixture fuels. MWCNTs into the JB20D up to 16%. The brake specific fuel con-
This enhancement justified the nano-additive-blending into the sumption also significantly decreased with the addition of
biodiesel-diesel mixture and minimized the energy and environ- MWCNTs into the JB20D up to 15%.
mental problems resulting from the use of petroleum fuels. Based The NOx, UHC, and CO emissions were remarkably reduced with
on the experimental investigations, the following conclusions were the addition of MWCNTs into the JB20D. The NOx was reduced
obtained: by 35%, CO by 50%, and UHC by 60% at a nanoparticle concentra-
tion of 20 mg/l.
The addition of MWCNTs into the JB20D advanced the occur- The best combustion characteristics of the engine was obtained
rence of peak heat release rate. The addition of MWCNTs also at a nano-additive dose level of 50 mg/l (pmax was increased
decreased the ignition delay and accelerated initiation of by 7%, dp/dhmax by 4%, and dQg/dhmax. by 4%) , while the
bsfc and emissions reduction percentage, %

Thermal efficiency increase percentage ,%

70 20 70 20
1500rpm 2000rpm
60 CO
60 NOX
CO
NOX UHC 15
15 50 BSFC
50 UHC
Efficiency
BSFC
Efficiency
40 40
10 10
30 30
20 20
5 5
10 10
0 0
0 0
10 20 30 40 50
10 20 30 40 50
Nanoparticle concentration, mg/l Nanoparticle concentration, mg/l

70 20
2500rpm
60 CO
NOX
UHC 15
50 BSFC
Efficiency
40
10
30
20
5
10
0 0
10 20 30 40 50
Nanoparticle concentration, mg/l
Fig. 20. The reduction percentage of both bsfc and emissions and the increase percentage of the engine thermal efficiency at 12 Nm load with speeds versus nanoparticle
concentrations.
appropriate environmental characteristics were recorded at a characteristics. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:2070–93. http://dx.doi.
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Energy Conversion and Management 135 (2017) 373–393

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

Performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of a diesel engine

A surface area, m2 JB20D40MWCNTs mixture fuel (JB20D) + 40 mg of multi-walled

GUNT Control Amplifier- TDC sensor

Air Air box

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental test rig.

Gas Measuring range Resolution Accuracy Fuel property Diesel Biodiesel

in the current study starts by warming up the engine for about

Methyl Jojoboate Jojobal alcohol

Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GCMS-Model,

From Table 10, the thermal conductivity of Multiwalled Carbon

Peak# Retention time (min) Compound Formula

Fig. 5. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of Jojoba oil biodiesel.

Table 10 resulted in a shortened ignition delay period. Cetane number is

Fig. 6. Graphistrenght C100 Images – (a) SEM and (b) TEM.

The mixture inside the combustion chamber is homogeneous dp ðpi pi1 Þ

Fuel type Start of combustion, ATDC h at maximum Qgross, ATDC hmax hd m

75 improved the fuel droplet atomization and the combustion pro-

Position of dP max. ATDC, deg.

2250 3.1.4. Gross heat release rate

JB20D10MWCNT delayed commence of the combustion process. The addition of

Crank angle positionATDC, deg.

Fig. 17. Variation of EGT with engine speed and torque.

bsfc and emissions reduction percentage, %

Thermal efficiency increase percentage ,%

Thermal efficiency increase percentage ,%

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