PHY 1041

Applied Physics
Department of CS and SE

Table of Content

Contents
Lab Session 1 (A).................................................................................................................................3
Introduction to instruments....................................................................................................................3
Lab Session 1 (B).................................................................................................................................5
To measure different resistances using color coding.............................................................................5
Lab Session 2........................................................................................................................................7
Comparison between the multimeter and using the coded resistance values as guided..........................7
Lab Session 3........................................................................................................................................9
Generate different waveforms at different frequencies using the function generator, plot on
oscilloscope and analyze the signals......................................................................................................9
Lab Session 4......................................................................................................................................12
Observe the characteristics of Series Circuit.......................................................................................12
Lab Session 5......................................................................................................................................14
Observe the Characteristics of Parallel Circuits...................................................................................14
Lab Session 6......................................................................................................................................16
To verify that voltage and current are directly proportional using a 1kΩ resistor................................16
Lab Session 7......................................................................................................................................19
To study the I-V characteristics of a general purpose silicon diode and measure forward and reverse
bias effect on P-N junction..................................................................................................................19
Lab Session 8......................................................................................................................................21
To study the characteristics of Un-biased Diode limiters/clippers of the following types:..................21
(A) Series Un-biased positive & negative limiters...............................................................................21
(B) Parallel Un-biased positive & negative limiters............................................................................21
Lab Session 9......................................................................................................................................27
To study the characteristics of parallel dual Positive and Negative clipper/limiter..............................27
Lab Session 10....................................................................................................................................29
To study Half-wave rectifier circuits...................................................................................................29
Lab Session 11....................................................................................................................................31
To study the characteristic of Un-biased Diode Positive & Negative clampers...................................31
Lab Session 12....................................................................................................................................35
Working of transistor as a switch.........................................................................................................35
Lab Session 13....................................................................................................................................38
To study characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor at maximum and minimum resistance........38
Lab Session 14....................................................................................................................................40
To study the response of Full-wave rectifier........................................................................................40
Lab Session 15....................................................................................................................................43

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To understand the working of Zener diode..........................................................................................43
Lab Session 16....................................................................................................................................46
To study the working of PNP transistor as a switch.............................................................................46
References..........................................................................................................................................48

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Lab Session 1 (A)

Introduction to instruments.

Oscilloscopes:

The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph an electrical signal as it varies over time.
Most scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-axis and voltage on the y-
axis.

Function Generator:

Function generators are test equipment that are able to generate a variety of simple repetitive
waveforms. Straightforward signal generators such as RF signal generators or simple audio
oscillators focus on producing a good sine waves, but in many cases other waveforms are
needed.

In addition to producing sine waves, function generators may typically produce other
repetitive waveforms including saw-tooth and triangular waveforms, square waves, and
pulses. Another feature included on many function generators is the ability to add a DC
offset.

Often some of the low end function generators may only operate up to frequencies of
possibly around 100 kHz as the various shaped waveforms are normally only needed at lower
frequencies. However many other more comprehensive function generators are able to
operate at much higher frequencies, often up to 10 or 20 MHz.

Figure 1.1

Regulated power supply:

A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit; it converts unregulated AC into a

constant DC. With the help of a rectifier it converts AC supply into DC. Its function is to
supply a stable voltage (or less often current), to a circuit or device that must be operated

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within certain power supply limits. The output from the regulated power supply may be
alternating or unidirectional, but is nearly always DC (Direct Current).

Modern regulated supplies mostly use a transformer, silicon diode bridge rectifier, reservoir
capacitor and voltage regulator IC. There are variations on this theme, such as supplies with
multiple voltage lines, variable regulators, power control lines, discrete circuits and so on.
Switched mode regulator supplies also include an inductor.

Multimeter:

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), is an

electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a
microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings.

Figure 1.2

Resistors

The resistor is a passive electrical component to create resistance in the flow of electric
current. In almost all electrical networks and electronic circuits they can be found. The
resistance is measured in ohms. An ohm is the resistance that occurs when a current of one
ampere passes through a resistor with a one volt drop across its terminals. The current is
proportional to the voltage across the terminal ends. This ratio is represented by Ohm’s law:

Devices called resistors let us introduce precisely controlled amounts of resistance into
electrical circuits. Let's take a closer look at what they are and how they work! Photo: A
typical resistor used in an electronic circuit. It works by converting electrical energy into
heat, which is dissipated into the air.

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Lab Session 1 (B)

To measure different resistances using color coding.

Procedure:
The 4-band code is used for marking low precision resistors with 5%, 10% and 20%
tolerances. Identifying the value will become easy with a little practice, as there are only a
few simple rules to remember:
 The first two bands represent the most significant digits of the resistance value. Colors
are assigned to all the numbers between 0 and 9, and the color bands basically translate the
numbers into a visible code. Black is 0, brown is 1, red is 2 and so on (see the color code
table below). So, for example, if a resistor has brown and red as the first two bands, the
most significant digits will be 1 and 2 (12).
 The third band indicates the multiplier telling you the power of ten to which the two
significant digits must be multiplied (or how many zeros to add), using the same assigned
value for each color as in the previous step. For example, if this band is red (2), you will
multiply it by 102 = 100 (or add 2 zeros). So, for the resistor we used in the previous
example, the value would be: 12 x 100 = 1200Ω (1.2kΩ). 
Note: If the multiplier band is gold or silver, the decimal point is moved to the left by one
or two places (divided by 10 or 100).
 The tolerance band (the deviation from the specified value) is next, usually spaced away
from the others, or it's a little bit wider. A color is assigned to each tolerance: gold is 5%,
silver is 10%. 20% resistors have only 3 color bands - the tolerance band is missing.

Figure 1.3

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The standard resistor color code table:

Table 1.1
Color 1st 2nd digit 3rd digit* Multiplier Tolerance
digit

Black 0 0 0 ×100  

Brown 1 1 1 ×101 ±1% (F)

Red 2 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G)

Orange 3 3 3 ×103  

Yellow 4 4 4 ×104  

Green 5 5 5 ×105 ±0.5% (D)

Blue 6 6 6 ×106 ±0.25%(C)

Violet 7 7 7 ×107 ±0.1% (B)

Gray 8 8 8 ×108 ±0.05% (A)

White 9 9 9 ×109  

Gold       ×0.1 ±5% (J)

Silver       ×0.01 ±10% (K)

None         ±20% (M)

Observation:

Table 1.2
First Band Second Band Third Band Tolerance Resistive
band Value

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Lab Session 2
Comparison between the multimeter and using the coded resistance
values as guided.

Objective

Select appropriate meter range and measure the resistance of different resistors and voltage of
different supplies. Record your measured readings under ‘measured values’ column in table
given.

Theory

1- Voltmeter

A voltmeter is an instrument designed to measure voltage, it can be connected across

the terminals of a voltage source to measure the voltage produced by the source.

2- Ohm meter

An ohmmeter is an instrument designed to measure the resistance. Resistance can

never be measured when there is a voltage source connected across it or when there is
any other component connected to it.

Procedure

1- Measured resistance value using ohmmeter.

2- Connect voltage source across the resistor shown in figure 3.1.
3- To measure the voltage across the resistance connect the voltmeter across the
resistance as well as the voltage source as shown in figure 3.2.
4- The positive and negative symbols on the voltmeter symbol shows the connection of
the polarity,(red terminal to + and black terminal to -) as shown in figure.

Figure 3.1

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Observation

Resistor measured resistance versus color coding values.

Table 2.1
1 2 3 4 5

First color
band

Second color
band

Third color
band

Fourth color
band

Tolerance

Coded value
in ohm

Measured
value in ohm

Measured Value versus applied value

Table 2.2
Applied DC voltage in Measured DC voltage in volts
volts
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

2V

3V

4V

5V

Result:

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Lab Session 3

Generate different waveforms at different frequencies using the

function generator, plot on oscilloscope and analyze the signals.

Theory

Function Generator

Function generators are a form of signal generator that can generate waveforms with common
shapes: sine, square, pulse, triangular, saw-tooth, etc.

A function generator is a specific form of signal generator that is able to generate waveforms
with common shapes. Unlike RF generators and some others that only create sine waves, the
function generator is able to create repetitive waveforms with a number of common shapes.

Typically a function generator may be able to vary the characteristics of the waveforms,
changing the length of the pulse, i.e. the mark space ratio, or the ramps of the different edges
of a saw-tooth waveform, but it will only be able to create the waveforms that are built in to
the function generator.

Typically function generators are only able to operate at relatively low frequencies, some
only operating to frequencies of around 100 kHz, although more costly models can operate at
higher frequencies, up to 20 or 30MHz. Despite this the need for function generators is often,
but not always in the lower frequency end of the frequency spectrum.

Function generator capabilities

Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms, generally

from the list below:

Sine wave:   A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard
sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a
standard sinusoidal shape.
Square wave:   A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to
produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.
Pulse:   A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It is
effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1.
Triangular wave:   This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point.

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Saw-tooth wave:   Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a sawtooth.

Function generator controls

In addition to a selection of the basic waveforms that are available, other controls on the
function generator may include:

Frequency:   As would be expected, this control alters the basic frequency at which the
waveform repeats. It is independent of the waveform type.
Waveform type:   This enables the different basic waveform types to be selected:
 Sine wave
 Square wave
 Triangular wave
DC offset:   This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to 0V or ground.
Duty cycle:   This control on the function generator changes the ratio of high voltage to low
voltage time in a square wave signal, i.e. changing the waveform from a square wave with a
1:1 duty cycle to a pulse waveform, or a triangular waveform with equal rise and fall times to
a saw-tooth.
Function generators are normally very easy to operate. With modern processing technology
often included this gives the possibility of many additional features including ease of
operation, and remote control via one or more of the many standards available.

Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes allow us to determine relationships between certain variables in electrical
circuits. Early oscilloscopes were only able to show the relationship that exists between
potential difference and time. Today’s oscilloscopes continue the tradition of measuring
voltage vs. time while also providing an extensive collection of sophisticated data-analysis
capabilities, display features, and triggering options.

Analysis of Waveform in Oscilloscope

This is a typical single waveform display in an oscilloscope, showing the time on the
horizontal axis and potential difference on the vertical axis.

Figure 3.1

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In the lower left part of the image, you will see 500mV

That indicates two things:

 Channel 1 is displayed on the oscilloscope in yellow.

 For channel one each grid rectangle corresponds to 500 mV in the vertical direction.
So we have "500 millivolts per division" with 8 vertical rectangle visible, and thus
500mV/1division×8divisions=4V
Visible in the vertical direction

In the bottom left, you will see another box that says AFG Sine 100.00kHz 1.0000 Vpp:

 AFG Indicates the Arbitrary Function Generator is active.

 100.000 kHz is the frequency of the waveform: 100,000 cycles each second.
 1.0000 Vpp is the amplitude of the transmitted waveform.`

In the bottom-center there is another box with:

4.00 µs                      5.00 GS/s      ① ∫        

  T →▼0.000000 s     1M points      0.00V
 4.00 µs is the value of each rectangle in the horizontal direction:  "4 microseconds per
division."  The display includes 10 rectangles, so
4.00μs / 1 division×10divisions=40 μs
of time is visible across the entire screen.
 The oscilloscope is recording 5.00 GS/s, i.e., 5×109 samples per second.
 Channel 1 is used to control the triggering of the waveform.
 Triggering occurs on the rising edge of the channel 1 waveform.
 The image is centered at T →▼0.000000 s from the trigger point.
 1 million (1 M) data points will be collected.
 Triggering occurs when a rising signal passes through 0 V.

 Observation

1. Type of wave ______________

2. Frequency ______________
3. Channel used ______________
4. ___________Voltage visible in vertical direction
5. V p-p _______________
6. ___________seconds is visible across the horizontal direction.
7. The image is centered at T →▼0.000000 s from the trigger point.
8. Triggering occurs when a rising signal passes through 0 V.

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Lab Session 4

Observe the characteristics of Series Circuit.

Components:
1. DC Power Supply
2. DMM
3. Board
4. Resistors

Theory:

A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the current has only
one path to take. The current is the same through each resistor. The total resistance of the
circuit is found by simply adding up the resistance values of the individual resistors:

Equivalent resistance of resistors in series: R = R1 + R2 + R3 +...

Figure 4.1

A series circuit is shown in the diagram above. The current flows through each resistor in
turn. If the values of the three resistors are:

With a 10 V battery, by V = I R the total current in the circuit is:

I = V / R = 10 / 20 = 0.5 A. The current through each resistor would be 0.5 A.

Procedure:
Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 and measure RT, I, VAB, VBC, VCD, VDE, VC, VBD, and
VDA. Enter the values in Table 4.1.

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Figure 4.2
Observation:

Table 4.1
SNO Parameters Calculated Measured Difference
Values
1 Rt
2 I
3 Vab
4 Vbc
5 Vcd
6 Vde
7 Vbd
8 Vda

Question# 1 In steps 1 through 4 the measured values were not exactly the same as the
calculated values? Why.

Question# 2 what percentage of error would you observe in the calculated value and
measured values of R, I and V?

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Lab Session 5

Observe the Characteristics of Parallel Circuits.

Components:

1. DC Power Supply
2. DMM
3. Board
4. Resistors

Theory:
A parallel circuit is one that has two or more paths for the electricity to flow, the loads are
parallel to each other. If the loads in this circuit were light bulbs and one blew out, there is
still current flowing to the others because they are still in a direct path from the negative to
positive terminals of the battery.

Figure 5.1

Let’s consider the given example

Figure 5.2

In the example we see a 12 and 24 ohm resistor in parallel with a 12 volt source. First we
figure out the total resistance of the circuit:

1/Rt = 1/12 + 1/24

Rt = 8 Ohms
Now that you know this you can figure out the total amperage (It) using Ohm's Law:
I total (It) = 12V / 8 Ohms = 1.5 Amps
Therefore the total amperage between the two resistive paths must equal 1.5 Amps (Rule 3).
Now we can figure out exactly what each path is pulling using Ohm's Law once more.

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Remember that the voltage is the same everywhere in a parallel circuit. So we know the
voltage and the resistance:
I1 = 12V / 12 Ohm = 1 A
I2 = 12V / 24 Ohm = .5 A
We figured the total amperage (It) previously, so now we can double check if the figures are
correct:
I1 + I2 = It
1A + .5A = 1.5A

Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit given below

2. Calculate and measure RT, V1, V2, V3, I1, I2, I3, It for the circuit. Enter the values in
table.

Figure 5.3

Observation:

Table 5.1
S.no Parameters Calculated Measured
1 Rt
2 V1
3 V2
4 V3
5 I1
6 I2
7 I3
8 It

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Lab Session 6

To verify that voltage and current are directly proportional using a

1kΩ resistor.

List of Components

1. Variable DC Power supply

2. 1kΩ resistor (Color code Brown, Black, Red, Gold)
3. Breadboard
4. Connecting wires (Jumper wires)
5. Multimeter

Ohms Law

The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is proportional to the

current through it.

The constant of proportionality is called the "resistance", R.

Ohm's Law is given by:
V=IR
Ohms Law Relationship

1. To find the Voltage, ( V )

[ V = I x R ]      V (volts) = I (amps) x R (Ω)

2. To find the Current, ( I )

[ I = V ÷ R ]      I (amps) = V (volts) ÷ R (Ω)

3. To find the Resistance, ( R )

[ R = V ÷ I ]      R (Ω) = V (volts) ÷ I (amps)

Circuit Diagram

Setup the circuit diagram as shown:

  22KΩ

Figure 6.1

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Steps

1. Implement the circuit on the breadboard as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Initially set the VDC supply to 0 V and note the current on ammeter.
3. Increase the voltage to 1 V, observe the ammeter and note the readings.
4. Repeat the above step for 2 V, 3V … 10 V.
5. Plot a graph for measured readings between
6. Compare the plot with theoretical calculations.

Observation:
Table 6.1
S.NO Voltage Current
1 1v
2 2v
3 3v
4 4v
5 5v
6 6v
7 7v
8 8v
9 9v
10 10 v

Calculations

The theoretical calculations are achieved from the original formula, V = IR.

Table 6.2
S.NO Voltage Current
1 1v
2 2v
3 3v
4 4v
5 5v
6 6v
7 7v
8 8v
9 9v
10 10 v

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Graph:

Ohm’s Law

Graph 6.1

Conclusion:

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Lab Session 7

To study the I-V characteristics of a general purpose silicon diode and

measure forward and reverse bias effect on P-N junction.

Equipment:
One Multimeter
One variable DC power supply
One D1: 2N4001 Silicon Diode
One R1: 270Ω
One bread board

1. Procedure:
1) Press the function switch of the digital multimeter (DMM) so that it acts as an ohm meter
and press the range selector switches to diode test position indicated by diode symbol.
2) Identify the anode and cathode ends of the silicon diode. Connect the red (positive) lead
of the DMM to anode and the black (negative) lead to cathode, these connections forward
bias the diode, measure and record it, typically it is in the range of few ohms.
3) Now swap the DMM probes, measure the reverse resistance of the diode and record it,
typically it is in the range of MΩ.

Forward resistance: __________________

Reverse resistance: ___________________

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure 7.1

2. Current-Voltage Characteristics of Diode:

1) Set the power supply to 0v and connect the circuit as shown in figure for the given diode.
2) Adjust the power supply voltage values Vs.

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3) Measure and record the current through diode.
4) Repeat step 2 and 3.
5) Plot the I-V characteristic curve on the graph paper with Voltage V on X-axis and current
I on Y-axis

Observation:
Table 7.1
S NO Supply Voltage Diode Voltage Current Through Diode
(V) (V) I (mA)

Conclusion:

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Lab Session 8

To study the characteristics of Un-biased Diode limiters/clippers of

the following types:

(A) Series Un-biased positive & negative limiters.

(B) Parallel Un-biased positive & negative limiters.

Equipment:
One-DMM
One-Oscilloscope (OSC)
One-Function Generator

Components:
1N4001 silicon diode
1kΩ 2W resistor
Bread Board

Procedure:
(A) Series Un-Biased Positive &Negative limiter
1. Connect the function generator (FG) to the oscilloscope CH1 with ground common, set
frequency of FG at 1 KHz, amplitude to 6Vpk-pk and function switch to sinusoidal.

Figure 8.1

(a)Series unbiased positive limiter

Figure 8.2

(b)Series unbiased negative limiter

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2. Observe and draw the wave form shown on the oscilloscope screen on the graph
GPH-1 Table 3A-1, with proper phase and amplitude. This is the input signal to be
use in the circuit.
3. Construct the Series Un-Biased Positive limiter circuit as depicted in figure, connect
oscilloscope CH2 to point C and ground terminal to point D and turn on FG. Draw
the resultant waveform on GPH-2 Table 3A-1. This is the output waveform of the
series un-biased positive limiter/clipper.

Graph:

Series unbiased positive limiter

Graph 8.1

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Series unbiased negative limiter

Graph 8.2

4. Turn off FG. Now reverse the polarity of the diode in figure. The circuit becomes a
series Un-Biased Negative limiter as depicted in Figure. Turn on FG. Draw the
resultant waveform on GPH-3 Table 3A-1. This is the output waveform of the series
un-biased negative limiter/clipper.

(B) Parallel Un-Biased Positive & Negative Limiter:

1. Connect the function generator (FG) to the oscilloscope CH1 with ground common,
set frequency of FG at 1 KHz, amplitude to 6Vpk-pk and function switch to sinusoidal.
2. Observe and draw the wave form shown on the oscilloscope screen on the graph
GPH-4 Table 3A-2, with proper phase and amplitude. This is the input signal to be
use in the circuit.
3. Construct the Parallel Un-Biased Positive limiter circuit as depicted in figure, connect
oscilloscope CH-2 to point C and ground terminal to point D and turn on FG. Draw
the resultant waveform on GPH-5 Table 3A-2. This is the output waveform of the
Parallel un-biased positive limiter/clipper.
4. Turn off FG. Now reverse the polarity of the diode in figure. The circuit becomes a
Parallel Un-Biased Negative limiter as depicted in Figure. Turn on FG. Draw the

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resultant waveform on GPH-6 Table 3A-2. This is the output waveform of the Parallel
un-biased negative limiter/clipper.

Figure 8.3

(a) Parallel Un-Biased Positive Limiter

Figure 8.4

(b) Parallel Un-Biased Negative Limiter

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Parallel Un-Biased Positive Limiter

Graph 8.3

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Parallel Un-Biased Negative Limiter

Graph 8.4

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Lab Session 9

To study the characteristics of parallel dual Positive and Negative

clipper/limiter.

Equipment:
DMM
Oscilloscope (OSC)
Function Generator

Components:

1N4001 silicon diode

1kΩ 2W resistor
Bread Board

Procedure:

1. Connect the function generator (FG) to the oscilloscope CH1 with ground common,
set frequency of FG at 1 KHz, amplitude to 6 Vpk-pk and function switch to sinusoidal.
2. Draw the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen on the graph GPH-1 Table
2B-1, with proper phase and amplitude. This is the input signal to be use in the circuit.
Turn off the FG.
3. Construct the Parallel dual Positive and negative limiter circuit as shown in the
schematic diagram Figure 2-8.
4. Connect the oscilloscope to point C and ground terminal to point D and turn on the
FG. Draw the wave form shown on the oscilloscope screen on GPH-2 Table 2B-1.

Figure 9.1

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Graph:

Graph 9.1

Result:

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Lab Session 10

To study Half-wave rectifier circuits.

Equipment:
DMM (Digital Multimeter)
Oscilloscope

Component:
Transformer: ac center-tapped.
Silicon diode: 1N4001
½ -W resistors: 1KΩ

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit of Fig 5-1, measure the voltage across the secondary winding and
draw it in the graph.
2. Measure and record dc output voltage across 1KΩ resistor.
3. Use an oscilloscope to look at rectified voltage across 1KΩ resistor. Record the peak
voltage of half-wave signal. Next measure the period of the rectified output. Calculate
the ripple frequency and record the result in table 5-1.
4. Calculate the peak output voltage across 1KΩ resistor. Also calculate the output
voltage and ripple frequency. Record your calculation in table 5-1.

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 10.1

Formula:
Vdc = 0.318 Vp
Vp = Peak voltage on oscilloscope
Vdc= average value of pulsating dc
fr = Ripple frequency

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Observation:

Table 10.1
RL DC Meter DC volts on Vdc =0.318 Vp Time Period fr =Ripple
Reading Oscilloscope Vp (volts) T (sec) frequency
(Volts) (volts)

Graph:

Graph 10.1

Conclusion:

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Lab Session 11

To study the characteristic of Un-biased Diode Positive & Negative

clampers.

Equipment:

DMM
Oscilloscope
One-Function generator

Component:

1N4001 silicon diode

10 KΩ Resistor
1µF
Bread Board

Procedure:
1. Connect the function generator (FG) to the oscilloscope CH1 with ground common,
set frequency of FG at 1 KHz, amplitude to 10 Vpk-pk and function switch to
sinusoidal.

Figure 11.1

(a) Un-biased positive clamper

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Figure 11.2

(b) Un-biased negative clamper

2. Observe and draw the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen on the graph GPH-
1 Table 3-1, with proper phase and amplitude. This is the input signal to be use in the
circuit. Turn off the FG.
3. Construct the un-biased positive clamper circuit as shown in the figure 7-1(a).
Connect oscilloscope CH2 to point C and ground terminal D and turn on FG. Draw
the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen on GPH-2 Table 7-1. This is the
output waveform of the Un-biased positive clamper.
4. Turn off FG. Now reverse the polarity of the diode and the capacitor in figure 7-1(a),
the circuit becomes a Un-biased Negative clamper as depicted in figure 7-1(b). Turn
on FG. Draw the resultant waveform on GPH-3 Table7-1. This is the output
waveform of the un-biased negative clamper.

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Graph:

Un-biased positive clamper

Graph 11.1

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Un-biased negative clamper

Graph 11.2

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Lab Session 12

Working of transistor as a switch.

The Transistor as a Switch

When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied in such a
way that it always operates within its "active" region, that is the linear part of the output
characteristics curves are used. However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can
be made to operate as "ON/OFF" type solid state switches by biasing the transistors base
differently to that of a signal amplifier.
Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of transistors, and transistor
switches can be used for controlling high power devices such as motors, solenoids or lamps,
but they can also use in digital electronics and logic gate circuits.
If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing of the transistor, either
NPN or PNP is arranged to operate the transistor at both sides of the “I-V " characteristics
curves we have seen previously.
The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the Saturation Region and the Cut-
off Region. This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage
divider circuitry required for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by driving it
back and forth between its "fully-OFF" (cut-off) and "fully-ON" (saturation) regions as
shown below.

Operating Regions

The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the "Cut-off" region while the
blue area to the left represents the "Saturation" region of the transistor. Both these transistor
regions are defined as:

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1. Cut-off Region

Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( I B ), zero output
collector current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a large
depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is
switched "Fully-OFF".

Cut-off Characteristics
The input and Base are grounded (0v)
Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
Transistor is "fully-OFF" ( Cut-off
region )
No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
VOUT = VCE = VCC = "1"
Transistor operates as an "open switch"
Then we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" when using a bipolar transistor as a
switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP transistor, the
Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.

2. Saturation Region

Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied,
resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage
drop which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current
flowing through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched "Fully-ON".

Saturation Characteristics
The input and Base are connected to VCC
Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
Base-Collector junction is forward
biased
Transistor is "fully-ON" (saturation
region)
Max Collector current
flows(IC = Vcc/RL)
VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
VOUT = VCE = "0"
Transistor operates as a "closed switch"
Then we can define the "saturation region" or "ON mode" when using a bipolar transistor as a
switch as being, both junctions forward biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be positive with respect to the Base.
Then the transistor operates as a "single-pole single-throw" (SPST) solid state switch. With a
zero signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns "OFF" acting like an open switch and
zero collector current flows. With a positive signal applied to the Base of the transistor it
turns "ON" acting like a closed switch and maximum circuit current flows through the
device.

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An example of an NPN Transistor as a switch being used to operate a relay is given below.
With inductive loads such as relays or solenoids a flywheel diode is placed across the load to
dissipate the back EMF generated by the inductive load when the transistor switches "OFF"
and so protect the transistor from damage. If the load is of a very high current or voltage
nature, such as motors, heaters etc, then the load current can be controlled via a suitable relay
as shown.

Equipment:
One Power Supply
Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Component:
LED
R1=1K, R2=2K
Bread Board
BC337

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the Figure-1.
2. Set power supply at 6v than turn on.
3. Set input I at the minimum 0V. Observe the output LED whether it is ON or OFF.
4. Note down the state of the LED.
5. Set input I at the maximum 6V. Observe the output LED whether it is ON or OFF.
6. Note down the state of the LED.

Figure 12.1

Observation:
At Minimum 0 Volts, the LED is ___________.
At Maximum 6 Volts, the LED is ___________.

Conclusion:
While using Transistor as a switch,

Question no 1 In which operating region, transistor is fully ON?

Question no 2 In which operating region, transistor is fully OFF?

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Lab Session 13

To study characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor at maximum

and minimum resistance.

Equipment:
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Power supply
Transistor BC337
Resistances 820Ω, 100Ω, 1KΩ

Circuit diagram:

Figure 13.1

Procedure:
Characteristics of NPN:
1. Set R2 at the maximum resistance. Connect the circuit of Figure 1, with sources VEE
and VCC off.
2. Turn on the power supplies. Observe and measure emitter current IE, collector
current IC. Also record base current IB if possible.
3. Measure and record the emitter-base voltage (VBE), collector-base voltage (VCB),
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) and VR3 in Table 1.
4. Set R2 for minimum resistance. Repeat step 2 and step3. Record current and voltages
in the appropriate columns in table 1.

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Observation:

Table 13.1
IE IC VEB VCB VCE IB VR3
(mA) (mA) (V) (V) (V) (mA) (V)
Max. R2

Min. R2

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Lab Session 14

To study the response of Full-wave rectifier.

Equipment:

DMM (digital multimeter) .

Oscilloscope

Component:
Transformer: ac center-tapped
Silicon diode: 1N4001
½ -W resistors: 10 KΩ
Bread Board

Procedure:
1. Connect the rectifier circuit as shown in Figure-1.

Figure 14.1

2. Use an oscilloscope to rectified voltage across 1KΩ load resister. Record the peak
voltage of half-wave signal. Next measure the period of the rectified output. Calculate
the ripple frequency and record the result in table 1.
3. Calculate the peak output voltage across 1KΩ resistor. Also calculate the output
voltage and ripple frequency. Record your calculation in table 1.
4. Calculate and measure the quantities listed in table 1.
5. Measure and record DC output voltage across 1KΩ resistor.
6. Draw the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen on the graph, with proper phase
and amplitudes.

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Observation:

Full-wave Rectifier.
Table 14.1
FORMULA CALCULATED MEASURED
RMS secondary Write measured
-------
voltage value
Peak output
voltage Vo,pk= (Vpk/2) – 0.7

Dc output voltage
Vo,dc= 2Vo,pk/π
Ripple frequency
fripple=2fin

Graph:

Graph 14.1

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Conclusion:

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Lab Session 15

To understand the working of Zener diode

The Zener diode mainly operates in reverse biased condition. We use Zener diodes for
voltage regulation and voltage stabilization. They provide a low-cost and no frill method for
voltage regulation. The critical parameter of this type of diodes is the Zener breakdown
voltage. The Zener breakdown voltage is the minimum reverse biased voltage below which
the diode blocks the reverse current through it and above which it causes a significant amount
of reverse bias current to flow through it. Once the reverse voltage reaches the Zener
breakdown voltage, the voltage across the device remains constant at that level. Hence we
can use Zener diode for voltage regulation. The graph of voltage vs current of a diode is
called its characteristic. Below you can see the characteristic.

Figure 15.1

Here Vz is the Zener breakdown voltage. We are going to learn about an experiment to find
out the Zener breakdown voltage and draw the characteristics of Zener diode. Why should we
do this experiment? For correct voltage regulation, we need to find out precisely what voltage
should be across the Zener diode. Zener breakdown voltage should be approximately close to
the desired voltage we want. Therefore we have to find out the Zener voltage to use that
diode appropriately in voltage regulation. For the experiment, we will follow the below
circuit diagram.

Equipment Required:
 Zener diode
 Milliammeter
 Voltmeter
 Variable DC supply
 Resistors

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Circuit Diagram:

Figure 15.2

Do the same experiment by connecting the Zener diode in the forward bias. Note down the
current and voltage reading.

Observation:

Table 15.1
Reversed Biased Circuit Forward Biased Circuit
Voltage Current Voltage Current

Results:

At which biasing zener diode is working properly?

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How zener diode is different than conventional PN Junction diode?

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Lab Session 16

To study the working of PNP transistor as a switch.

Equipment:
Power Supply
Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Component

LED
R1=330, R2=100K
Bread Board
BC327

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 16.1

Observation:
At Minimum 0 Volts, the LED is ___________.
At Maximum 6 Volts, the LED is ___________.

Question no 1. Light Emitting Diode (LED) - what is it?

Question no 2 "5 Volt LED" - what does it mean?

Question no 3 LED array - what is it?

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Question no 4 Can LED be use a dimmer?

Question no 5 Resistor - what type should I use with my LED?

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References
1. Fundamentals of Physics by Halliday and Resnick, 11th edition (extended), volume 2,
2018.
2. Electronics Devices and Circuits by Robert L. Boylestad -11th edition, 2012.
3. https://www.electronics-notes.com
4. https://www.electrical4u.com
5. https://opentextbc.ca/universityphysicsv2
6. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics

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