SENSORY EVALUATION OF FOOD

DEFINITION

Sensory analysis of food relies upon evaluation through the use of out senses (odour, taste,
tactile, temperature, pain, etc.). Only by applying exact scientific testing methods can
reproducible results be obtained and analysed statistically.

APPLICATION

Even though sophisticated and highly sensitive measuring instruments such as gas
chromatographs, mass spectrometers, etc., are now available, the importance of sensory
analysis has grown rather than diminished. Most instrumental analysts have come to realise
that only through the co-ordination of instrumental and sensory analysis can optimal
information be obtained. Even at the limit of instrumental activity, e.g. where no signal
appears, our Abiological detector@ (our senses) may still perceive an odour, taste, etc.
Additionally, the instruments will only analyse single components, whereas our senses give
us a total impression of aroma, taste, temperature and tactile components.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORGANOLEPTIC AND SENSORIC TESTERS

Sensory analysis can be carried out scientifically through sensory testing or non-scientifically
through organoleptic testing. The scientific method is naturally preferred, but it should be
noted that even the scientific method can be used in a non-scientific way, thus providing
questionable results. Characteristics of the organoleptic tester include recording with his
senses (e.g. placing a margarine sample on the back of his hand); feeling rather than
analysing his impressions; relying on experience; confusing quality tests with hedonic
evaluations; and not checking on the accuracy of his sensory abilities. Characteristics of the
sensory tester, or sensory analyst include measuring with his senses; using exact methods
(e.g. difference tests, descriptive tests based on sensory standards); participation in
appropriate training courses and periodic selection tests; and working in a panel where test
results are analysed statistically. The sensory analyst can be compared to an instrument. He
objectively measures sensory differences or classifies the quality of a product by using a well-
defined quality scale.

There are many applications of sensory analysis; quality control of raw materials and
finished products, storage tests, analysis of competitive products, development of new
products, investigation of factors influencing the odour and flavour of food, aroma research,
market tests and hedonic tests.

TERMS

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Millions of flavour sensations are experienced in a lifetime. Flavour is an important attribute
of a food. It involves the complex integration of sensations from the olfactory centre in the
nasal cavity, the taste buds on the tongue, tactile receptors in the mouth, and the perception
of pungency, heat, cooling and so on when a food is placed in the mouth. However, much of
what we call flavour is blending of taste and aroma. Other sensory factors may also affect
our total experience with food, including its visual appearance and even the sounds of
crunching crisp foods such as raw carrots and celery.

Flavour: a blend of taste, smell and general touch sensations evoked by the
presence of a substance in the mouth.

sensations perceived through stimulations of taste buds on the tongue,

primary tastes are sweet, sour, salty and bitter.

Aroma: an odour detected by the olfactory sense (it is a combination of odour

and taste that is dependent on mouthfeel).

Olfactory: having to do with the sense of smell.

Tactile: having to do with the sense of touch.

Pungency: a sharp, biting quality.

Mouthfeel: tactile stimulation, temperature, pain (burning from chilli) and

astringency (sourness from tannins in red wine).

Food quality is evaluated by all people, either consciously or unconsciously. Food choices in
the marketplace are made by consumers on the basis of their previous experiences with
specific brands and various foods. Thus, the individual consumer=s evaluation of food,
combined with the decisions of countless other individual consumers, dictates the quality of
food to be produced.

The testing of food quality in the marketplace is too costly for food producers to undertake on
a broad basis without considerable preliminary research. In-house testing and evaluation are
done on a scientific basis, with food scientists planning and supervising experiments. Very
careful and thorough tests are conducted to ascertain the product formulations or processing
techniques that are anticipated to be successful in the marketplace. Trained sensory
panellists evaluate the samples and provide guidance in improvement of the product. This
type of testing is termed sensory evaluation or subjective evaluation because the scores are
determined by individual decisions based on the use of the senses and do not rely on
mechanical devices. However, mechanical testing usually is done too, to provide additional
information about the food being tested. This type of testing is designated objective
evaluation.

The testing that is done in-house is a measure of the acceptability of the product to the
personnel involved in the evaluation, but it cannot be assumed that the general public has the

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same assessment. Therefore, products often are market tested on a small scale to obtain
information from a selected sampling of the potential market. The results of the test marketing
determine whether the product is released into the general market, discontinued, or modified
prior to general marketing.

Clearly, the food industry relies very heavily on evaluation in developing new products and in
maintaining quality control in existing food items. Persons working within the food industry
utilize evaluation techniques as basic tools. Sensory evaluation and objective evaluation are
both vital sources of information to the researcher and to the person responsible for quality
control.

Persons involved in supervision of institutional food service also have to be able to evaluate
food and to identify changes that would enhance the acceptability of the food to the clientele.
The professional person can evaluate food precisely and relate this evaluation to the food
preferences of consumers. Studies of plate waste provide valuable information regarding food
acceptability.

Professional evaluation of food requires careful analysis of the ways of assessing food, the
properties of food, and the techniques for measuring these characteristics. Practice in
evaluation also is essential.

In-House Testing: Evaluation conducted within a food company prior to field testing
and test marketing.

Subjective Evaluation: Evaluation by individuals on a panel with a scoring system

based on various characteristics that can be judged by using the

senses.

Sensory Evaluation: A synonym for subjective evaluation; measurement determined

by using the senses of sight, smell, taste and sometimes touch.

Objective Evaluation: Measurement of physical properties of a food by the use of

mechanical devices.

APPLICATION OF SENSORY EVALUATION

There are many applications of sensory analysis; quality control or raw materials and finished
product, storage tests, analysis of competitive products, development of new products,
investigation of factors influencing the odour and flavour of food, aroma research, market tests
and hedonic tests.

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There are two types of sensory evaluation, analytical sensory evaluation and consumer
sensory evaluation. They may use similar techniques but the two types differ in the types of
problems that are addressed. In other words, the two types of sensory evaluation differ in the
question that they answer.

ANALYTICAL SENSORY EVALUATION uses humans as analytical instruments. The judges

are trained and the test conditions are often not related to normal food consumption. However,
the test conditions are designed to improve the sensitivity, reliability and consistency of the
judges. The goal is to study the variations in th food, not the judges. Judges are not
interchangeable.

CONSUMER SENSORY EVALUATION uses target consumers to determine degree of liking,

preferences and sometimes purchase intent of the consumer. The specifications and
variations of the food are known, and the goal is to study the subjects= response of emotional
reactions to the food. The sensory scientist must be sure that the subjects belong to the target
consumers audience.

THE USE OF SENSORY EVALUATION

Sensory scientists study the following sensory attributes of food and non-food products:
appearance, aroma, taste, texture and sound. They also study the reactions of consumers to
the products. Sensory analysis can be applied to many areas within the food industry, some
of these areas include:

Grading / Standard setting: In the dairy industry experts screen extensively for defects. In the
meat industry meat inspectors include the health and hygiene of the animal in the grading
process. The wine, whiskey, tea and coffee buyers also rely on experts to screen their
products.

PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT: This is where sensory evaluation comes into its own. It
can be used in the creation of new products, when
ingredient substitutions must be made, and when a
company wants to create products similar to those made
by competitors.

QUALITY ASSURANCE: Sensory analysis may be used to maintain standards

and to prevent variation. Sensory evaluation, as well as,
physical and microbial evaluations are used in storage
studies, when studying the effects of processing and/or
packaging changes.

CORRELATION WITH CHEMICAL / PHYSICAL ANALYSES:

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Sensory analysis results can be used with chemical and textural analyses to study changes
in flavour and / or texture during processing and storage of products.

Sensory evaluation is not only used in the food industry but also in the personal products,
household products, tobacco, pet and animal fee industries.

FIVE LARGE SUBSECTIONS IN SENSORY ANALYSIS

Since the 1950's, exact requirements for the selection and qualification of sensory analysis
have been worked out. Also, the testing procedure has been defined in detail depending upon
the research problems to be solved. Sensory analysis can be divided in the following five
subsections:

1. Difference tests for the recognition of small and minute differences.

2. Threshold and dilution tests for the recognition of specific odour, taste or flavour
components, and for the characterization of differences in odour and flavour profiles.
3. Ranking tests for the classification of samples according to differences in one or several
specific quality components in the series to be ranked.
4. Descriptive and rating test methods relying upon objective reference standards which
allow a clear cut definition of the specified quality components in each quality grade
observed in daily practice.
5. Hedonic tests in which the subjective hedonic preference of the consumer or Ataste
panel@ members is rated.
As can be seen from above, hedonic preference testing is the only one based upon subjective personal
evaluation. In all other sensory tests, our senses are used as analytical biological detectors
discriminating without any personal Alike - dislike@ or Aacceptance - rejection@ attitudes.

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1
WHAT IS SENSORY ANALYSIS AND WHAT DOES IT TELL US ?

Sensory evaluation is a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyse and interpret
reactions to those characteristics of foods and materials as they are perceived by the senses
of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing.

Sensory scientists and product developers use two types of sensory panels; those consisting
of trained panellists (analytical sensory evaluation) and those consisting of consumers as
panellists. These two panels serve entirely different purposes in the product development
cycle.

Analytical sensory evaluation

Uses trained judges (humans) as analytical instruments to measure the sensory characteristics
of foods.

What is a trained sensory panel ?

Trained sensory panellists are individuals who have undergone extensive formalised training,
or who have had sufficient experience with a product category to recognise or to know the
attributes of the product. Individuals who are qualified to do discrimination and descriptive
tests (trained) should preferably not be used for consumer tests. The training process,
especially for descriptive analysis, results in subjects who have an analytical approach to
product evaluation that is likely to bias the overall response required for the acceptance /
preference task. A descriptive test that is used for analytical sensory analysis requires the
panellist to provide numerous judgments for each product and involves relatively few subjects,
as few as 10 to as many as 20. When there are fewer than 10 panellists, the overall
contribution of each panellist to the total variability increases accordingly, such that too much
dependence is placed on too few panellists. With a trained sensory panel, the panellists
function as human instruments in evaluating their objective impressions of an attribute. The
panel is used for laboratory evaluation of products (in terms of differences or similarities) and
for identification and quantification of sensory characteristics. Potential panellists are screened
for selected personal traits, interest and ability to discriminate or identify differences and
generate reproducible results. Further training familiarises panellists with test procedures and
increases their ability to recognise, identify and recall sensory characteristics.

Consumer sensory evaluation

This panel consists of consumers who are individuals who use the product but may not know
about its composition or the nuances that it can assume.

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What is a consumer panel ?

Affective or consumer sensory testing is regarded as a valuable and necessary component of

every sensory analysis programme. Consumer sensory research can identify consumer needs
which are not being met by currently available food products; it can anticipate future needs;
and in the identification of new markets and business opportunities; and help to prevent the
costly errors of producing and marketing food products to a dream target group which does
not exist. Consumer tests are conducted to obtain market and product information by
determining the personal reaction (acceptance and / or preference) by current or potential
consumers of a product, a product idea or specific product characteristics. The methods used
to establish acceptance, preference or degree of liking for food items should be conducted
among large numbers of untrained, inexperienced people who are representative of the target
population of users of the product under study. The consumer sensory test is categorised as
a small panel test; that is, usually 50 - 100 subjects participate. Consumer test methods have
proven to be effective as a principal tool in development of food products.

Measures how much humans like / dislike, prefer, or accept / reject a product with a view of
predicting sales / use.

Sensory analysis is used to establish differences and to characterise and measure sensory
attributes of products, or to establish whether product differences are noticeable to consumers
and whether these are acceptable or unacceptable to the target consumer group.

Sensory analysis answers questions relating to food quality in three main areas, as follows:

Discrimination

Would people notice / detect the difference?

How many would discriminate against / detect this difference?

Description

What does the product look / smell / taste like?

What are its perceived sensory characteristics?

How does one product differ from another in quality attributes?

How does a change in process / formulation / packaging / storage conditions affect the quality
attributes of the product?

Preference and acceptance

How much do people like this product?

Is it acceptable / preferred?

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Is this an improvement over another product?

WHY SHOULD A FOOD COMPANY USE SENSORY ANALYSIS ?

In most food companies, product tasting is practically a daily occurrence. Reasons for this
include:

• maintaining awareness of company or competitor products

• promoting company products to potential customers
• deciding on changes to products
• checking that product quality matches a target or meets a specification.

Quite often, opinions, observations and comments made at informal tastings become major
influences in the life history of a product. Decisions are then made in circumstances which are
not designed for obtaining good sensory information.

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF USING SENSORY ANALYSIS ?

Sensory analysis should be used to provide the best possible information to help make all
business activities more effective. Sensory analysis is all about ways of removing or taking
into account sources of unwanted error through control of environment and sampling, through
good experimental design and by selecting the most appropriate Ainstruments@ to make the
measurements. It provides answers to sensory questions which are asked about products
whether new or old, company or competitor, by MD=s, factory managers, technical,
development and research staff, quality managers and production staff and marketing.

GETTING THE RIGHT ANSWERS CONTRIBUTES TO PRODUCT SUCCESS IN THE

MARKETPLACE. CONSIDER THE COST OF GETTING THE ANSWERS WRONG!

Sensory analysis integrated into the business will help:

(1) shorten development lead times and

(2) contribute to a better understanding of product behaviour. At the same time, using sensory
analysis

(3) portrays professionalism which benefits the company in its dealing with its customers.

TABLE 1: TYPES OF PROBLEMS THAT CAN BE SOLVED USING SENSORY ANALYSIS

TYPE OF PROBLEM TESTS APPLICABLE

1. New product development: The product development team needs information Several
on the sensory quality characteristics and also on consumer acceptability of
experimental products as compared to existing products on the market.

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2. Product matching: Proving that no difference exists between an existing and a Difference tests
developmental product.
Similarity tests

3. Product improvement: Difference tests

Define exactly which sensory characteristics need improvement. Affective tests

Determine that the experimental product is indeed different.

Confirm that experimental product is preferred to the control.

4. Process change: Difference tests

Confirm that no difference exists. Affective tests

If a difference does exist, determine how consumers view the difference.

5. Cost reduction / Selection of a new source of supply: Difference tests

Confirm that no difference exists. Affective tests

If a difference does exist, determine how consumers view the difference.

6. Quality control: Difference tests

Products sampled during production, distribution and marketing are tested to Descriptive tests
ensure that they are a good as the standard. (Well-trained panel can monitor
many attributes simultaneously.)

7. Storage stability: Difference tests

Testing of current and experimental products after standard ageing tests. Descriptive tests

Ascertain when differences become noticeable Affective tests

Descriptive tests (trained panel) can monitor many attributes simultaneously.

Affective tests can determine the relative acceptance of stored products.

8. Product rating or grading: Grading

Used where there are methods of grading which have been accepted by
agreement between producer and user, often with government supervision.

9. Consumer acceptance and opinions: Affective tests

After laboratory screening, it may be desirable to submit product to central-

location or home-use tests to determine consumer reaction. Acceptance tests

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 will indicate whether the current product can be marketed or if improvement is
needed.

10. Consumer preference: Affective tests

Full scale consumer preference tests are the last step before test marketing.
Employee preference studies cannot replace consumer tests but can reduce
their number and cost whenever the desirability of key attributes of the product
is known from previous consumer tests.

11. Panellist selection and training: Sensitivity tests

May consist of interview, sensitivity tests, difference test and descriptive tests. Difference tests

Descriptive tests

12. Correlation of sensory with chemical and physical tests: Descriptive tests

Correlation studies are needed (1) to lessen the load of samples on the panel Attribute difference tests
by replacing a part of the tests with laboratory analysis; (2) to develop
background knowledge of the chemical and physical causes of each sensory
attribute.

13. Threshold of added substance: Threshold tests

Required in (1) trouble shooting to confirm suspected sources of off-flavours; Descriptive tests
(2) to develop background knowledge of the chemical causes of sensory
attributes and consumer preferences. Attribute difference tests
(Lawless & Heymann, 2010).

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2
HUMAN SENSORY RECEPTORS

Sensory analysis of food relies upon evaluation through the use of our senses (Jellinek, 1985).
The senses by which we perceive food are sight, sound, smell, touch (kinesthesis,
temperature and pain). These senses are often confused or not even noticed. We are usually
unaware of the differences among taste, feel and odour sensations when we bite into food.

APPEARANCE - VISION

We often fail to recognise how important a role appearance plays in food perception and
appreciation. The visual presentation of the food on the market or on the consumer=s plate
influences his / her response (Stewart & Amerine, 1982). Visual sensations result from
reactions to electromagnetic radiation. Humans react to a limited spectrum of light
wavelengths, those between the range of 400 and 700 nanometres. Within that range, we
associate each specific wavelength with a specific colour. The eye contains two types of

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receptors for visual perception: cones and rods. The cones subserve colour perception and
act as the important receptors for food perceptions. They process light information and show
sensitivity to light at moderate and high energy levels. The following are examples of
characteristics associated with the appearance of food products as perceived by the eye:

1. Colour
Colour is particularly important in foods because if the colour is unattractive, the consumer
may never touch or taste the food. It is also a factory by which quality is recognised and
directly associated with ripeness development (MacDougall, 1987). Colour influences the
ability to identify flavour and estimate strength. Individuals differ in their perceptual worlds.
Some individuals cannot perceive red/green differences. These colour blind individuals
perceive the two colours identically and lack the receptors to differentiate the two colours
(Moskowitz, 1983).

2. Physical form

Size, shape, thickness, floating particles, fat on soup, creaminess of cheese, foaminess of beer,
clarity, carbonation, movement.

3. Surface texture

Glitter, gloss, sheen, smoothness / roughness, evenness, wet / dry, transluency and the
uniformity of these over the surface of a product.

SMELL / ODOUR / AROMA

The olfactory sense is the second most important sensory guide to food appreciation. This is also the
most elusive and mysterious of the senses. The human ability to discriminate among hundreds of
different odour qualities and to sense a single stimulus is truly astounding. The smell of food
encourages consumption and activates digestive processes in the mouth and stomach, while
unpleasant odours cause rejection. Spoiled foods often have typical and easily recognisable odours
that cause us to reject them. As with colour, many individuals were found who show a diminished
sensitivity to specific odourants. For sensory analysis this means that as much as individuals try to be
consistent, even with continued training, some specific off-notes may elude those individuals
exhibiting specific anosmia. Similar individual differences clearly detect and reject the bitter taste
imparted by saccharin in artificially sweetened beverages while other panellists report no bitter off-
taste at all, or at least show no adverse reactions to any marginal bitterness which may emerge.

The human nose is very sensitive to odour. In contrast to taste, touch, vision and audition, the nerves
subserving the olfactory system go directly into the brain, rather than travelling to the thalamus and

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then travelling onward from the thalamus relays to the brain. The odour of a product is detected
when its volatiles enter the nasal passage and are perceived by the olfactory system. Besides smelling,
the nose has the task of warming and filtering the air we breath before it passes to the lungs (Jellinek,
1985). We sense an odour at the Aregio olfactoria@ (R) which lies at the top of the inside of the nose
(Fig 1). During normal breathing the air does not stream to the upper part of the nasal chamber. A
sniff is required for air to reach this area (sniffing) where the air whirls in the upper passages creating
a multiplication effect (Jellinek, 1985). Scientists have estimated that humans have approximately 50
million single cells in our olfactory mucosa. Dogs may possess about 200 millon cells. (Moskowitz,
1983).

Olfactory sensations during eating and drinking seem to come from the mouth even though the
olfactory receptors are at the top of the nasal cavity, just under the eyes. The aroma (odour of a food
product) can thus be perceived both by smelling and Atasting@. An odorous substance can be
Atasted@ on the tongue without taking it into the mouth. The odorous substance is placed at the
opening of the mouth with the neck of the bottle close to the lips but not touching it. The nose is held
closed and while keeping the nose blocked, air is inhaled vigorously through the mouth. The bottle is
then quickly taken away and the mouth is closed and the nose opened. By exhaling through the nose,
the substance is Atasted@ on the tongue (Jellinek, 1985). The only time olfactory sensations are
localized in the nasal cavity is when we inhale a pungent agent like horseradish. In this case we feel
the path the volatiles take on their way to the olfactory receptors because tactile receptors in the
lining of the nose are stimulated. During normal eating, odours go from the mouth into the nasal
cavity and up to the olfactory receptors. The failure to localise the odour sensation in the nose seems
to occur because the brain uses touch to obtain localization information. Since there are no
localization cues, the entire experience is localized in the mouth where the touch is experienced.

TOUCH / MOUTHFEEL

The sense of touch is often underestimated as a factor in the appreciation of foods. However, consider
the importance of the creaminess of chocolate, the graininess of nuts or pears, the crumbliness of
cake. The group of sensations generally described as touch can be divided into tactile sense and
kinesthetic sensations. Our skin and joints come equipped with a complex array of sensory receptors
which provide us with multiple sources of information. The skin contains receptors for pressure, light
and heavy touch, pain as well as temperature receptors. Feeling of particles is a tactile sensation -
chalky, sandy, grainy, lumpy. Kinaesthesis or deep pressure is felt through the sense of tension and
relaxation of muscles. It gives us a sensation of resistance:

e.g. chewing tough meat

crispness of lettuce

biting crunchy corn flakes

hard or soft

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 thick or thin

sticky or slippery

Texture is the attribute of a substance resulting from a combination of physical properties and
perceived by the sense of touch, sight and hearing. Physical properties related to texture may include
size, shape, number, nature and conformation of constituent structural elements (Piggot, 1984). Fig
2 demonstrates the procedure for evaluating texture.

Three categories of textural characteristics have been identified:

 Mechanical characteristics relating to the reaction of food to stress: hardness,

cohesiveness, viscosity, elasticity and adhesiveness.
 Geometrical characteristics relating to the size, shape and orientation of the
particles within the food.

 Other characteristics relating to the perception of the moisture and fat content of
the food (wetness, oiliness, moistness, dryness) as perceived by the tactile nerves in
the surface of the skin of the hand, lips or tongue .

Touch characteristics can also include:

Temperature sensations:

Warmth of coffee and tea, hotness of curry, coldness of cold drinks, ice cream and beer. Temperature
also modifies odours and tastes, which may affect overall appreciation. Extremes of temperature even
approaching pain are appreciated in some foods. People sometimes remark that food taste different
cold than warm. Complex foods, with volatiles, give off more volatiles when warm than when cold
which, in turn, provides a more intense odour stimulus. As we warm or cool the tongue, we modify
the sensory information going to the brain. The tongue houses temperature receptors as well as taste
receptors. Pain sensations:

The attraction of pepper is apparently due to the burning sensation it causes. Individuals vary greatly
in their sensitivity to and appreciation of pain in foods.

SOUND

The sounds / noise produced during mastication of foods is a minor but not negligible sensory
attribute. Consider the crunching of nuts / potato chips as an important sensory impression of quality.
When we chew a food, we react to the sound energy conducted by bone directly to the middle ear.
Our appreciation of the quality and texture of the foodstuff are obtained from the modified sound
quality which occurs when we break the cell walls, rupture them and create sound. Sound pressure
differences provide the necessary stimuli for auditory perception.

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TASTE

We receive taste information by responding to chemicals dissolved on the tongue, in the carrier liquid,
and in saliva which we secrete from the salivary glands in the mouth. These taste stimuli must possess
at least some marginal ability to dissolve in water, in order to reach the receptors located on the taste
buds. Taste receptor cells form clusters much like the segments of an orange. These orange-like
structures are the taste buds. Taste buds are buried in the tissue of three different kinds of visible
structures on the tongue called papillae. The fungiform papillae look like tiny button mushrooms and
are located on the tip and the front edges of the tongue. The foliate papillae look like a series of
parallel lines on the rear edges of the tongue. The circumvallate papillae are the large circular
structures located in an inverted V on the rear of the tongue. These three papillae types are laid out
in the shape of an oval on the tongue. The density of taste buds is greatest on the edges and
diminishes toward the centre. The centre of the tongue is virtually devoid of taste. In addition to the
taste buds buried in papillae on the tongue, there are taste buds on the roof of the mouth (at the
boundary between the hard and soft palates) that are not in papillae. Some papillae contain taste
buds which react to dissolved materials (e.g. fungiform, circumvallate), other papilla do not show
sensitivity to any taste materials whatsoever (filiform). Thousands of different chemicals excite the
sense of taste. Yet is normally accepted that we perceive only four basic tastes.

Taste and smell must not be confused. Taste does not only refer to the four major tastes, SOURNESS,
SWEETNESS, SALTINESS & BITTERNESS perceived in the mouth.

What do the various basic tastes tell us?

SWEETNESS lets us know that that the food contains sugars and metabolic by-products of
carbohydrate breakdown which provide energy and kilojoules.

SALTINESS indicates the presence of minerals and salts, such as those from sodium and potassium that
are vital for preserving a proper electrolyte balance in our cells and organs to ensure their proper
functions.

BITTERNESS appeals to most of us who drink beverages such as coffee or beer although bitterness
sometimes sends a strong message that the food may contain poisonous substances – for example,
alkaloids – that we should avoid.

It is less obvious why we taste SOURNESS. Acidity might influence us at they indicate substances
which regulate the pH balance in our bodies, but at the same time also sharpen the appetite and
improve digestion. Sourness assists us to stay clear from certain foods, such as unripe fruit or rancid
fat, that contain such a high amount of acid that they can be unpleasant to eat or even poisonous.

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SAVOURINESS OR UMANI, which has become known as the fifth taste tells us that food contains
nutrition in the form of amino acids and proteins. Umami – was given this name in 1909 in Japan
which roughly translates to deliciousness.

Examples of ingredients (foods) that provide us humans with the UMAMI taste:

Soy sauce, Marmite, Miso, Anchovies, Tomato paste, Fish sauce, Worcestershire sauce, Dried
mushrooms and Cheese.

All taste modalities are important in some foods and sometimes several are found in the same food.
Sweetness is particularly important in soft drinks, fruits, fruit juices, honey and in many baked
products. The lack of a certain amount of acidity (sourness) results in a flat and unpalatable taste in
many foods. The bitter taste is appreciated in beer, certain types of wine and many other foods. A
salty taste is liked in a diverse range of food products.

From about 2 years of age children prefer salted to unsalted foods (Stewart & Amerine, 1982). Taste
sensitivity varies with individuals and with temperature. Taste is also subject to adaptation.
Continuous application of taste solutions to taste buds on the tongue gradually results in insensitivity.
An interesting aspect of taste is the interaction of tastes that takes place on the tongue. Not all people
react the same when tasting two compounds together. Water can taste sweet, sour, bitter or salty,
depending on the nature of the substance that preceded it on the tongue. However, the most
common taste quality of water is sweet.

FLAVOUR

Flavour can be defined as the total impression of odour, taste, tactile, kinesthetic, temperature,
pain sensations perceived through tasting (Jellinek, 1985).

DEFINITION OF TEXTURE AND FLAVOUR

Both of these terms are not only frequently used in sensory evaluation literature but are also
defined in different ways. This makes their understanding difficult.

1. DEFINITION OF CONSISTENCY, STRUCTURE AND TEXTURE

It was Tilgner (1979) who defined these terms in such a way that they can be differentiated clearly.
He writes: APhysical properties are limited by their connotation in consistency, structure and texture.
These terms cannot be used synonymously even though all can be characterized rheometrically by
similar force action methods. Rheology is defined as the science of deformation and flow of
substances. All substances flow, only their flow behaviour is different. After deformation, the
particles return to their original position.

(a) Definition of consistency

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Consistency describes a substance=s compactness, the connection of its elements, density, firmness
or viscosity, and its resistance or plastic behaviour (action) during continuous changes of form. Its
plastic behaviour can be described as a deformation curve, forming curve or flow curve in the case of
viscous substances. Definition of structure

Structure describes a substances set-up, construction, granular make-up, textile construction (as
macrostructure, microstructure and molecular structure) and, depending on network structure or
structure power, as liquid, semi-firm and firm foods. The terms >firmness= or >softness= are also
used. Even though not exactly defined, they descriptively evaluate consistency and structure as well
as density and hardness properties of a substance. The crosslinks of polymers considerably influence
the firmness of these high molecular weight substances. In the case of products of plant origin, the
firmness of fruits and bulbs (tubers) - evaluated as cell turgor - is characteristic of the cell condition.

(b) Definition of texture

Texture describes a substances tissue structure. The term is derived from the word textile. Textile
manufacturers produce through spinning and weaving, materials of various textures.

Psychophysical investigations made by food technologists about 30 years ago led to a classification of
hedonic sensations perceived through the mouth which are important to the modern consumer. In
modern sensory analysis, texture is characterised by detailed subdivisions of the haptic tactile and
pressure sensations perceived through biting, chewing and swallowing. This has led to a deeper
understanding of the texture complex of foods. When judging foods by tasting, properties such as
softness in biting, ease of disintegration into fragments, connection of the fibres, and other pressure
and softness sensations on the tongue, hard palate and cheeks are considered. An easy to bite,
tender, firm but soft and juicy texture seems to be the most acceptable to the consumer. As can be
seen, sensual enjoyment is derived from functional properties. Texture is the composite of those
properties which arise from the physical structural elements and the manner in which it registers with
the physiological senses. The term texture, therefore, encompasses all properties of foods which are
perceive by the kinesthetic and tactile senses in the mouth, e.g., tenderness, density, granular
structure, fragility, humidity, etc. Following are 96 descriptions and material properties

TENDER SLICEABLE DISSOLVED FRACTURED FINE FIBROUS

SOFT COMPRESSIBLE LOOSELY CRUMBLED COARSE FIBROUS

FINE MELLOW SYMMETRICAL FRAGILE GRANULAR

LIGHT COHESIVE MARBLED FRIABLE COARSE

17
 FIRM PLASTIC LARDY CRUMBLY THIN GRAINED

TOUGH FLEXIBLE DENSE STRINGY GRITTY

STIFF ELASTIC SLOUCHY TACTILE COARSE GRAINED

LONG DUCTILE SNIPPY SMOOTH DOUGHY

WELL BOUND SPRINGY FRAGIBLE CHALKY MASHED

COMPACT WEAK BRITTLE MEALY MARROWY

LOOSE SLACK SLITTY FLAKY MUSHY

GRISTLY PULPY STRAWY LEATHERY GUMMY

CORKY CRUSTY CHEWY CRISP CRACKY

CRUNCHY SOAKED GELATINOUS STRUCTURED PASTY

BLOATED BURSTED FLESHY INFLATED PUFFY

SCALY FOAMY SPONGY VISCOUS LIQUID

JUICY MOIST WATERY WET TACKY

ADHESIVE STICKY GREASY CREAMY GLUEY

PULPY OILY SLIMY STIFF WOBBLY

(c) Introduction to texture evaluation

(Source: Tilgner, 1979)

Descriptive texture evaluation

In the daily practice of descriptive texture evaluation, mor less precise designations are used. These,
unfortunately, can lead to subjective interpretations, especially when clear definitions of the single
terms and standards are lacking. The 96 descriptive texture designations and product properties listed
can be classified by adding intensities to the descriptions, e.g., >little - slight - very - strong - complete
- predominant= etc. The range of this descriptive scaling is, however, variable and subjective. It is
most difficult to precisely determine the border values of >tender - almost tender - slightly tender,

18
etc.= while chewing. In principle, each scaling point should have the same meaning for each test
subject. This is only possible when work is done in an objectionable way.

Analytical texture evaluation

For a sensory record of textural features of any food, the different physiological, tactile and pressure
sensations are analytically evaluated in sequence of their perception, and their intensities defined.
The bite, chew and swallow process is divided into three stages. Depending upon the product, 5 to 6
scale points are used for the mechanical perceptions in the mouth. Over 20 mechanical and
kinesthetic properties are evaluated sensorically in sequence of their perception and their intensities
defined. The following features (characteristics) belong to the mechanical properties: hardness,
cohesiveness, adhesivity, density and viscosity, a fracturability, chewiness and gumminess (referring
to hardness and connection of particles). Geometrical features are particle size, hardness and fibre
orientation.

2. FLAVOUR

Two definitions can be found in literature. In the first case, the term flavour includes the four basic
tastes. The second case is the more acceptable definition: flavour is the total impression of taste,
odour, tactile, kinesthetic, temperature and pain sensations perceived through tasting.

SUMMARY

The acceptability of food is dependent on the interaction of a multitude of factors and attributes of
the food product being evaluated, as well as the individual doing the evaluation. An appreciation of
and attention to the sensory and nutrient qualities of food enables the food scientist, nutritionist or
marketing researcher to construct or fortify food ingredients with intention and foresight.

The purpose of training sensory panels is to develop familiarity with the product and its characteristics,
develop a common language to express these characteristics and to improve the individual=s ability
and that of the panel as a whole to provide consistent judgements. Training sessions are complete
when the panel has demonstrated the desired level of ability and agreement. Selecting and training
panellists for sensory testing is a complex procedure, but careful selection is worth the time and
money in the increased reliability of results which are ultimately used in making company decisions.

SENSOGRAM WHICH ILLUSTRATES THE CHARACTERISTICS PERCEIVED BY THE SENSES

EYE

Visual impression

19
 Colour, luster, size and shape

NOSE

Odour

Volatile flavouring substances

EAR

Sound

Texture

TONGUE

Taste

Sour, sweet, salty and bitter

ORAL CAVITY

Somato-sensory

Astringent, burning, cool, warm

Movements of muscles / joints

Consistency or texture

20
3
DISCRIMINATION / DIFFERENCE TESTS AND ATTRIBUTE RANKING

Difference tests are analytical methods. The panel members act like and instrument whose
task is to analyse whether or not there is a difference between two samples. As the differences
are very small, these tests are quite difficult. They require high sensitivity which, however,
can be acquired through training.

Difference tests are used extensively in the food industry in analytical sensory evaluation.
These tests are designed to answer only on question, namely “Do the panellists detect a
difference between two samples?” There are two groups of difference tests: 1. Attribute
difference tests are designed to determine whether two samples differ with respect to an
identified attribute e.g., sweetness, redness. 2. Overall difference tests are designed to show
whether panellists can detect any difference at all between samples (Triangle and Duo-Trio
tests). Difference test results can be analyzed using Roessler binomial tables.

Application

Difference tests are used in product testing and panel training and selection. Not all three
methods are, however, equally suitable.

The three main difference test methods are:

1. The paired difference test.

2. The triangle test.
3. The duo-trio test

1. PAIRED DIFFERENCE TEST

This is a two-sample test in which the panellists are asked to indicate the one sample that has more
of a designated attribute such as saltiness, toughness, spiciness. The test is very simple and very

21
sensitive in finding differences. The probability of selection of a specific sample, by chance alone, is 1
in 2 or P = 50%. For the paired comparison test the null hypothesis is always that the panellists pick
each product an equal number of times.

For difference tests, at least ten people should be available, but panels with 20 or 30 members are
better.

• Directional Paired Comparison

Objective: To determine whether two samples differ in a specified attribute such as

bitterness, crunchiness, redness.(whether the two samples can be
differentiated.

Type of panel: Trained for the task - panellists must understand what is meant by the
specified attribute e.g. bitterness.

Serving order: Several pairs are given to each panel member. Each pair consists of a control
sample K (e.g. apple juice) and an analytical sample A (e.g. apple juice with
sugar added). Pairs differing only in concentrations (A = low, B = higher
concentration) can also be presented. AB, BA -randomised across panellists.

The question posed may be which sample in each pair is sweeter (saltier, more sour, more fruity, more
rancid, more aromatic, more crisp, etc.) Only one question is posed in one test.

1.2 Difference Paired Comparison

Objective: To determine whether two samples differ without specifying the dimensions
of the difference.

Type of panel: Untrained - the panellists compare the two samples and decide whether they
are the same or different.

22
Serving order: AA, BB, AB, BA - randomised over the panel.

Conclusion: The results indicate whether or not the panellists could significantly
discriminate between the samples.

2. TRIANGLE TEST

The triangle test is the most widely used of all different tests. In the simple or classical triangle test
the only task is to find out whether or not there is a difference between two samples. In the extended
triangle test, there are additional tasks.

Three samples are presented simultaneously to the panellists, two samples are identical and one is
different. The question posed is: Awhich is the odd sample?@ Either the control sample (K) or the
analytical sample (A) are presented in duplicate, thus allowing six combinations:

AKK KAK KKA and KAA AKA AAK

The panellist has to determine which one of the samples is different from the other two. The guess
or chance probability is p = 33,3%. This method is used when the test objective is to determine
whether a sensory difference exists between two products. It is particularly useful in a situation where
treatment effects may have produced product changes, which cannot be characterized simply by one
or two attributes.

Objective: To determine whether two samples differ.

Type of panel: Trained to understand the task.

Serving order: AAB, BBA, ABA, BAB, ABB, BAA - randomised over the panel.

23
Conclusion: The results indicate whether or not the panellists could significantly
discriminate between the samples.

Extended triangle test

Additional tasks may be defining the degree of difference (triangle-intensity or triangle-directional

test), and/or characterizing the difference. When descriptions are too difficult, noting the panel
member=s preference (for either the duplicate or the odd sample) may provide hints for product
development. More information will be obtained, however, when the reasons for the preference can
be characterized in detail by the panel members.

The triangle test is of equal importance in product testing and in panel training and selection.

3. DUO-TRIO TEST

The duo-trio test is so called because it is intermediate between the duo (paired) and the trio (triangle)
test.

Three samples are presented simultaneously to the panellists, one sample is marked reference (R) or
control (C) and the other one or several pairs of samples are marked with random three-digit code
numbers. The reference (R) sample is identical to one of the coded samples. The panellist has to pick
the coded sample that is most similar to the reference. In other words, which is the different sample
in each pair. It can be also be asked: AWhich sample in each pair is identical to the control?@ The
latter question is frequently referred as it seems easier to answer. Two forms of the test exist: the
constant reference mode, in which the same sample, usually drawn from regular production, is always
the reference, and the balanced reference mode, in which both of the samples being compared are
used at random as the reference.

Objective: To determine whether two samples differ.

Type of panel: Trained to understand the test.

Serving order: Constant reference duo-trio test.

R, AB, R, BA - randomised over the panel.

24
K 41 44 and 42 44

Conclusion: The results indicate whether the panellists could significantly

discriminate between the samples.

4. ATTRIBUTE RANKING

Panellists are asked to rank 3 or more samples in terms of increasing (or decreasing) intensity of a
specified attribute, such as redness, spiciness, etc. The panellists must clearly understand the term
used to describe the attribute to be ranked, therefore they must be trained. No ties in the ranking are
allowed = forced choice test.

Objective: To determine whether three or more samples differ in a specified attribute

dimension.

Type of panel: Trained for the task and to understand the attribute to be ranked.

Serving order: Randomised serving of samples.

Conclusion: The results will indicate the direction of the attribute for the different samples
but will give no idea of the spacing between rankings.

5. HEDONIC TEST

The hedonic test is mainly used for consumer tests. The main objective is to determine if the consumer
likes of dislikes the sample. The test can be extended in order to obtain additional information by
asking how much the sample is liked or disliked. No training is required for this test.

(Basker, D. 1988. Critical values of differences among rank sums for multiple comparisons. Food Technology 42 (2): 79)

25
4
SENSORY TEST FACILITIES AND RECRUITING SUITABLE PANELLISTS

The basic approach of modern sensory evaluation is to treat the panellists as analytical
instruments. Unfortunately, these panellists are very prone to bias and are highly variable
(both amongst themselves and over time). As they are the only instruments that will measure
what needs to be measured, one must control the bias and minimise the variability. This can
be achieved by:

1. Repeating measurements
2. Making sure that enough panellists are available so that their verdicts are representative
of the whole spectrum.
3. Respecting the many rules and pitfalls that govern sensory panel attitudes.
4. Controlling the following variables:

Test controls

Testing area or test room environment

Testing set-up

Lighting

Room air and temperature

Preparation area

26
 Product controls

Preparation equipment

Sample equipment

Sample preparation

Sample presentation

Panel controls

Panel recruitment, orientation, selection and training

Testing schedule

Panel / Environment interaction

When people are used as a measuring instrument, it is therefore necessary to rigidly control all testing
methods and conditions to overcome errors caused by psychological factors. Physical and mental
condition of panellists as well as the influence of the testing environment affect sensory tests. Record
keeping is essential: Detailed accounts of procedures, methods, observations, records on individual
judges should be made and kept.

TEST CONTROLS

The physical setting must be designed in such a manner so as to minimise the subjects=
biases, maximise their sensitivity and eliminate variables which do not come from the products
themselves.

A) Testing area

The aim should be to allow the assessors to perform their task free from distractions in a neutral and
generally comfortable environment. A special testing area is used to minimise distractions and to
control testing conditions. A quiet, comfortable air-conditioned environment is required. Easy access
to the area (centrally located if possible) is required and panellists should under no circumstances
need to walk through the preparation area. Furthermore, the testing area should be free of crowding
and confusion. No odours from food preparation or foreign odours should be present in the testing
area as this well adversely influence judgement of panellists. A booth area, which is the principal room

27
used for difference tests as well as some descriptive tests is required as is a round table area for
training and / or other descriptive tasks. Convenience dictates that a sample preparation area be
located nearby but separate from the test room. Installation above a certain size also require office
area, sample storage area and data processing area.

B) Special booth features

A small stainless-steel sink and a water faucet are usually included for rinsing. These are mandatory
for evaluation of such products as mouthwashes, toothpastes and household items. A signal system
may be included so that the panel supervisor knows when an assessor is ready for a sample or has a
question. The materials of construction in the booth and surrounding area should be odour-free and
easy to clean. The colour (walls, etc.) should be neutral.

(C) Testing set-up

Individual judgements are usually required for most types of testing and therefore individual booths
are used. The use of individual booths eliminates distractions and prevent communication between
the panellists. Conditions must be conducive to concentration. An off-white or light grey colour is
normally recommended as this does not influence the appearance of the product being judged. It
must be professional looking and spotlessly clean at all times. The booths are usually constructed in
such a way that the sensory analysts do not have to serve samples in the testing room but can pass
them directly from the preparation area to the panellists. A signal system is sometimes used so that
the sensory analysts knows when a judge is ready for a sample or has a question. This usually takes
the form of a switch in each booth that will trigger a signal light for that booth in the preparation area.

(D) Lighting

Lighting should be uniform and should not influence the appearance of the product to be tested. If
colour differences are to be masked during testing, coloured lights can be used. If samples can be
differentiated by differences in shadow, you can use coloured serving equipment or glasses for tests.

(E) Room air and temperature

Comfortable surroundings are required, otherwise panellists will be easily distracted. Temperatures
of 20 - 22C and a relative humidity of 45 - 55% would be considered ideal.

(F) Preparation area

28
This area should have a good ventilation system to remove preparation odours. Sufficient space for
assembling and serving samples are required. Enough storage space needed for experimental
products. This area should be adjacent to the test area. Utensils and equipment that are required,
are product dependent.

PRODUCT CONTROLS

Preliminary testing is essential to standardise sample preparation, presentation and to test the
evaluation. Do not take short cuts - it might result in an extremely costly, frustrating as well as futile
experience. Standardise - you have no choice here!

Remember that sometimes objectionable sample may have to be presented to panellists. The
criterion that has to be adhered to at all times, is that the samples must be microbiologically safe.
Also, prepared tasters are forewarned - panellists should always be given a choice whether or not they
are willing to take part in tests or consumer test samples!

A. Preparation equipment and sample preparation

A well-equipped laboratory with standardised equipment is a must. Remember every effort should
be made to make the samples from different treatments identical in all characteristics except the one
being judged. Treat all samples exactly the same. Everything has to be standardised, except the
variable under evaluation. During sample preparation, attention should be paid to:

• the amount of product to be used, measured by weight or volume, using precise equipment.
• the process of preparation, regulation of time, temperature, and
• holding time: minimum and maximum time after preparation that a product is served.

Storage conditions should be an important factor especially in the case of heat sensitive products /
standards. Cool storage below 10C may be required. Often chilled or frozen storage is
recommended. Reference or standard samples should be thoroughly tested to ensure it complies
with all requirements. Shelf-life of retained or standard flavour samples should be predetermined and
these should be carefully stored to minimise any possible changes.

It is important that the test samples used are representative of the product as a whole.

B. Dilution and carriers

29
If possible, serve the food in the way in which it is normally consumed: Coffee or tea with milk and
sugar, jam and peanut butter with bread or crackers; vegetables and meat with salt. Hot sauces and
spices must be diluted before they are tested. The media chosen for dilution or Acarrying@ of a flavour
should, where possible, replicate the type of food product in which the flavour is to be used. The
media chosen will emphasise different aspects of the flavour profile of a single flavour.

Sweet flavours (syrup, sweetened milk or fondant)

Savoury flavours (neutral soup)

C. Serving temperatures

Serve at temperatures at which food is normally consumed e.g., 60 - 65C for hot foods, -1 to 2C for
ice cream and 4 to 10C for other foods. Some suitable method is required to keep products at the
designated temperature. Watch out for warmed-over flavour in meat products!

D. Serving utensils

These should not impart any taste or odour to the product. They should be clean and in an acceptable
state (not cracked or chipped). Preferably glass or porcelain. Aroma or odour can be simply evaluated
by the use of Asmelling strips@ which are absorbent blotting-type paper strips. It is considered that
odour evaluation directly from container or a container lid is not sufficient and will not be
representative of the sample.

E. Quantity served

Amount of sample given to each panellist should be consistent throughout testing. This should be
standardised during the preliminary study. Panellists should have enough product to make a sound
judgement (at least 20ml liquid and 30g solid for discriminating tests; doubled amounts for preference
testing).

F. Number of samples presented per session

Determine the number of samples that can be effectively evaluated in one session during the
preliminary testing. This will be dictated by panellist expectations, panellist motivation, type of
product and experience of panel:

• 8 or 10 biscuit samples per session

• 8 or 10 beer samples per session
• 1 or 2 samples per session of products with a high carryover flavour

Motivation is a key factor in this regard!

Sample shape can also be of importance - use same size as reference sample.

30
G. Coding and order of presentation

The order of the samples to panellists must be randomised or balanced as various psychological and
physiological effects come into play (e.g., contrast effect). Sometimes exceptions to this rule! Order
of assessment must be specified. Three-digit random numbers are usually used for coding for similar
reasons. Make use of a master sheet and tables of random numbers and permutations.

H. Rinsing or neutralising

Water, water biscuits, crackers, apples, carrots, mashed potatoes, rice can be used for removing
flavour from the mouth between samples. The use of rinsing or neutralising agents has to be tested
and standardised. Might sometimes add to the confusion. And assessor who chooses to use a palate
cleanser must do so consistently throughout the test.

I. Information about samples

As little information as possible about test material must be given to panellists as this may influence
results (so-called expectation error). Never use panellists that are directly involved in the project.
Remember that panellists often do not know what to do when evaluating stimuli. Precise instructions
are therefore essential. Do not let panellists re-taste sample unnecessarily! Instructions to panellists
should be clear and concise, tell judges the exact procedures that are to be followed - standardise!
Always be honest with panellists with regard to time commitments and numbers of products that are
to be tested.

J. How many analysts involved?

These are the persons preparing and serving the samples. The number depends entirely on the
product to be tested. How difficult or easy is it to prepare the samples? Instructions and supervision
required? No matter how chaotic it is in the preparation area - the panellists must never know!

Some psychological factors or errors influencing sensory analysis:

Expectation error

Do not give unnecessary or excessive information; do not allow people with direct involvement in the
product to serve as judges; serve all samples in similar, coded containers and mask any differences in
variables not studied.

Halo effect

31
When more than one factor in a sample is evaluated, a halo effect may be produced - panellists often
form a general impression of the product which effects evaluations. Prevent by evaluating only one
characteristic at a time.

Fatigue effects

Do not serve too many samples at a session; keep judges interested and motivated.

Number bias

Prevent / minimise by using three-digit random numbers.

Logical error

Panellists assign ratings to particular characteristics because they appear to be logically associated
with other characteristics. Prevent by keeping samples uniform and masking differences not studied.

Contrast effect

The presentation of a sample of poor quality before one of good quality, causes the panellist to rate
the second sample higher than it would normally be rated. This is equalised by randomization.

Positional bias

Where very small differences are found, panellists have a tendency to choose the middle sample as
being different. Prevent this by randomization.

PANEL CONTROLS

The value of a panel as an “analytical tool” in sensory evaluation, depends on the objectivity, precision
and reproducibility of the judgements of the panellists. Potential candidates should be selected for
their capability of providing the desired measurement as accurately and consistently as possible.
Panellists must be trained so as to calibrate the Ainstrument@ to give standardised measurements.
Assessors should not be permitted to influence one another (intentionally or otherwise) during the
test. Top management support for sensory evaluation in a company is a prime requirement for a
successful programme.

Profile of suitable sensory panellists

The type of individual who has potential as a panellist in the sensory programme possess the following
characteristics:

ATTITUDE

32
Panellists must be interested in the sensory programme and be motivated to perform a selected task.
Such persons must also be capable of producing reliable and consistent judgments.

INTEREST AND EAGERNESS

In sensory analysis are very important prerequisites

MOTIVATION OF INTEREST BY

• presentation of test results

• occasional rewards (besides small material rewards, verbal praise and / or recognition is
also important)

FEELING OF RESPONSIBILITY

For the importance of sensory analysis

INTELLIGENCE

The test must be fully understood (the various methods to be used, filling out of test sheets)

EXPRESSIVENESS

For describing the sensory perceptions

MEMORY FOR TERMINOLOGY

• odour
• taste
• flavour
• texture

ABILITY TO CONCENTRATE

Eliminating small unavoidable disturbances

PERSEVERANCE, ESPECIALLY TOWARDS

• extended test series

• difficult tests
• unpleasant test products

33
LACK OF AVERSIONS TO

• several test products

• products to be tested for a long period of time (test series)

ABILITY TO MAKE JUDGEMENTS

• honestly
• self-critically
• independently
• objectively
• willingness to revise a judgement in case one is mistaken.
• the candidate should be willing to consider the suggestions of others but should not be
unduly influenced to change a score against his / her own judgement.

AVOIDANCE OF BIAS

• not too critical

• not always preferring one’s own brand

ABILITY TO MAKE DECISIONS

• panellist should have confidence in his / her decisions.

• not easily discouraged.
• not taking too much time to reach a decision (testing time is expensive)

RELIABILITY

• monitoring should not be necessary. Candidates who try (successfully or not) to decode
labels or peek under bottles should be rejected.

MENTAL CONDITION

No excessive moodiness

TEAM SPIRIT

• troublemakers can disrupt an entire panel.

• domineering people can be disruptive and can discourage others by their know-it-all

34
 manner.

KNOWLEDGE OF THE LIMITS OF ONE’ CAPACITY

WILLINGNESS TO BE CHECKED AT REGULAR INTERVALS

• should not feel affronted if scores are checked.

AVAILABILITY

• should not feel affronted if scores are checked.

SENSITIVITY

The sensory panellists should have normal olfactory and gustatory sensitivities which can be improved
by training. Hypersensitivity may be a disadvantage.

AGE

All interested persons regardless of their age may be used for sensory analysis. Younger persons may
have more taste buds, whereas older persons can concentrate better, thereby balancing the results.

SEX

Men and women are equally qualified for the sensory evaluation of food and are, in general, equally
sensitive to food.

SMOKING HABITS

Smokers and non-smokers are both suitable as there are sensitive and less sensitive persons in both
groups. Smokers should however abstain from smoking at least 2 and hour before partaking in a
sensory test in consideration for non-smokers who are disturbed by the odour of smoke.

HEALTH

• normal sensitivity (no over-sensitivity)

• infrequent colds and / or allergies
• dentures with upper palate can influence taste perception.
• persons who do not feel well, especially those suffering from a cold, should not participate
in a test.

DISEASES / ACCIDENTS

35
• drugs / medication can influence taste perception.
• people with heart disease frequently have a bitter sensation in the mouth.
• after tonsillectomy, a bitter-salty taste may be temporarily perceived.
• head injuries may influence odour and taste perceptions or even lead to loss of such
perceptions.

DISTURBING BODY ODOURS CAUSED BY:

• poor hygiene
• smoking
• laboratory odours absorbed by clothing.

EATING

Eating highly spiced foods or garlic, taking drinks with a lingering aftertaste and sucking candies or
chewing gum have to be avoided before the test. A test should not be started for 30 minutes after
such activities.

COSMETICS

The use of strong-smelling cosmetics (face lotion, hair spray, hand cream, perfumed lipsticks) has to
be avoided during sensory tests and hands have to be clean. Hands should be washed with odourless
soap prior to evaluation sessions.

LABORATORY PERSONNEL

Persons working in a laboratory with strong smelling substances should be aware of it, as laboratory
odours absorbed by their clothing will disturb other persons and subtly influence their own results.

TESTING ENVIRONMENT

Test subjects should not come to a test session in a rush. Anu annoyance or excitement has a negative
influence on the test. Sensory analysis requires intense concentration by the panel members.
Therefore, disturbances such as noise, off-odours, etc. must be avoided. In addition, test subjects
should not have the chance to influence each other by facial expressions or orally conveyed results
(Jellinek, 1985).

RECRUITMENT OF POTENTIAL CANDIDATES

If in-house personnel cannot be used for tests, candidates may be recruited through questionnaires,
personal contact or seminars. Some of the recruitment criteria are as follows: interest, availability,
promptness, health, articulateness and attitude about the product class, ability to communicate,
personality characteristics.

36
CONSUMER PANELS

Consumer panellists should be from the target population for the product. These panellists are
frequently screened based on demographic information such as age, income group, gender, etc. The
consumers may also be screened to be people who like the product category, users of specific brands,
etc.

SELECTION OF PANELLISTS FOR TRAINED PANELS

Analytical panellists are tested to determine whether they are consistent and able to detect
differences between products. Some general guidelines for screening panellists for discriminative
tests are:

1. Use the product class which will ultimately be tested.

2. Select test methods similar to the actual ones to be used.
3. Prepare sample variations similar to those anticipated in the actual test. The difficulty
of the test must be adjusted so that a spectrum of sensory differences is included.
4. Be certain that panellists clearly understand score sheets and test methods.
5. Repeat the tests to determine the reproducibility of the candidate=s responses.
6. Screen more potential candidates than needed.
7. Determine judge reproducibility by including replications.

Triangle tests are often used for screening of panellists. Selection should be based on no fewer than
24 trials per candidate (i.e. four pairs, increasing in difficulty, replicated 6 times). Candidates should
score 60% or more to be considered as panellists. Matching, ranking, rating tests for intensity or other
detection / discrimination tests can also be used, depending on the aims of the screening and / or
discrimination tests to be used.

Candidates for a sensory odour discrimination panel should be screened on the basis of their abilities
to:

• differentiate among odours at low levels of sensitivity.

• focus their attention on more than one odour quantity in a given sensation.
• understand test procedures.
• exhibit satisfactory behaviour during tests

Examples of screening tests for the basic tastes:

serve 20ml samples of the following solutions and ask the panellist to identify the taste in each
instance:

Odourless and tasteless water

37
2% sucrose solution (sweet)

0,07% citric acid solution (sour)

0,2% sodium chloride solution (salty)

0,07% caffeine solution (bitter)

Make the following >taste papers= and ask the panellist to identify the taste in each instance.

4% caffeine (bitter, rectangles)

7% sodium chloride (salty, squares)

50% sucrose (sweet, triangles)

9% tartaric acid (sour, semi-circles)

Pour each solution in a pie plate and soak Whatman No 35-filter paper in the solution. Dry on a
chrome rack (steel may cause rust stains on the paper). Cut in shapes and wrap in foil (Heymann,
1995).

PANEL PERFORMANCE AND MOTIVATION

The performance of each panellist and of the panel must be checked regularly in terms of validity and
reproducibility. Regular feedback should be given to individual panellists as one of the major sources
of motivation for panellists. A system of rewards or recognition such as food or product rewards at
the end of sessions or special luncheons should be initiated.

It is important to note that success or failure of the panel development process depends on the strict
criteria and procedures used to recruit, select and train (where necessary) panellists.

REFERENCES:

Jellinek, G., 1985. Sensory evaluation of food. Theory and practice.

Lawless, H & Heymann, H. 2010. Sensory Evaluation of Food. Principles and Practices. 2nd Ed. Springer,
UK.

Ole G. Mouritsen & Styrbaek, K. 2014. Umami Unlocking the Secrets of the Fifth Taste.

Stone, H. & Sidel, J.L. 2004. Sensory Evaluation Practices. Academic Press Inc. Tragon
Corporation, Redwood City.

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