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Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability

Sampling Techniques: A Review and Set of Recommendations

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 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business and Economics
ISSN 2345-4695
2023, 11(1), 42–62

SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION FOR SURVEY RESEARCH AND

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: A REVIEW AND
SET OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Md. Mizanur Rahman

BRAC Business School, BRAC University, Bangladesh

E-mail: [email protected]
Received June 2022; accepted January 2023
Abstract
If the researchers cannot collect data from a sufficient number of respondents using an appropriate
sampling technique, it will be challenging for them to meet the study's primary objective. So, it is crucial
for researchers to collect data from a large enough sample size and choose a suitable sampling method.
Because there are so many different sampling strategies, and they come in such a wide range of forms,
researchers need to have a solid understanding of how these techniques differ to select the method that
will work best for their particular study. In this paper, the researcher addresses those crucial issues by
setting two essential questions: a. what are the various non-probability sampling techniques? b. what
the minimum possible number of participants required for survey research is? Non-probability sampling
techniques have been discussed with the necessary example so that the readers can easily understand
which method will be more appropriate for their study. In addition, some guidelines concerning the
determination of appropriate sample size (sample size calculation using G* power, the sample size for
categorical and continuous variables, sample to items, sample to variables, the sample size of CB-SEM,
PLS-SEM) for survey research have been discussed in this study. This study will help researchers
choose the non-probability sampling method(s) and minimum sample size to conduct their studies ef-
ficiently and fruitfully.

Research paper

Keywords: Sampling, non-probability sampling, sample size, survey research

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Rahman, M. M. (2023). Sample Size Determination
for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling Techniques: A Review and Set of Recommenda-
tions. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business and Economics, 11(1), 42–62.

Copyright © 2013-2023
www.scientificia.com
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

Introduction

In survey research, choosing the suitable sampling method and sample size
are crucial steps (Rahman et al., 2022). Sampling is the process of selecting
participants for a research study from a larger population using the research
study's criteria (Turner, 2020; Ginty, 2013). Thus, it is a must to have a good
knowledge of sampling techniques to conduct quality research (Berndt, 2020;
Guest et al., 2020; Tripathi et al., 2020; Gill, 2020; Ratan et al., 2019). The
fundamental goal of sampling is to obtain a representative sample, which con-
sists of a limited number of examples or units selected from a much larger
group or population. A representative sample is known as a "sample of rep-
resentative units." As a result, the researcher can study the more limited group
and draw legitimate conclusions about the more extensive group. The re-
searchers usually focus their efforts on methods that would suggest them with
samples that are pretty comparable to one another.
The researcher encounters a challenge when attempting to gather data
using the appropriate sample technique. The research questions for the study
cannot currently be answered because the researchers will not be able to col-
lect data from every situation. The researcher must be familiar with the dif-
ferences between the numerous and diverse sampling procedures and meth-
odologies that are accessible to choose the most suitable one for the particular
study under consideration (Rahman et al., 2022). In addition, to derive credi-
ble inferences from the outcomes of a study, one needs to determine the cor-
rect size of the study's sample population (Memon et al., 2020). Despite this,
many individuals consider it one of the more challenging aspects of develop-
ing empirical research (Dattalo, 2008). Even though there are several Tables
and general rules of thumb that can be employed, many researchers are still
43
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

unsure which one they should use to find out the appropriate sample size for
social science study. This is especially true when they conduct surveys to col-
lect information for their studies. The previous research has indicated that
using a small sample size in empirical studies published in respected journals
is one of the most significant issues arising with these types of investigations
(Memon et al., 2020, Green et al., 2016; Uttley, 2019). In light of the chal-
lenges that have been outlined above, the purpose of this research is to inves-
tigate some of these problems regarding the questions that have been outlined
below:
• What stages does a researcher need to follow to select a suitable sam-
pling technique?
• What are the various non-probability sampling techniques?
• What are the minimum sample size for survey research?

In the first part of the introduction, the researcher highlighted the basic
concepts of sampling techniques with their importance. In the second part,
the challenges relating to selecting a sampling technique and determining the
sample size usually a researcher faces while conducting research have been
covered. Finally, based on the challenges, the researcher set objectives. The
following steps include the research methods, discussions on non-probability
sampling techniques and sample size determination.

Methods/Design
The information used in this article came from a wide range of
sources, such as books, websites, books, and previously published research
articles and papers. The flowchart (figure 1) explains how these were chosen
44
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

from various potential options. Figure 1 illustrates the types of publications

that were considered for and rejected from further consideration at each level.
Most of the material was looked through using Google Scholar as the data-
bases of choice. It was determined that the following search phrases would be
helpful: "non-probability sampling techniques", "types of sampling tech-
niques", "sample size", and "sample size for survey research".

Key words identification

“Non-probability Sampling techniques”
“types of sampling techniques”, "sample
80 articles from “Google size", "sample size for survey research"
Scholar” and other websites
Exclusion criteria
10 articles were excluded with reasonable
causes
Critical screened (n=60 arti-
05 articles (did not get the full-access)
cles)
05 articles (below the date 2000)

Full text articles (n=50) for

preliminary eligibility

After qualitative assessment Most suitable 30 items have been selected

30 articles selected from the
previous steps (n=30)
Inclusion criteria
After carefully cross-check, another 3 articles
have been added
Final documents for analysis
(n=33)

Figure 1. Sampling process

45
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

All of the duplicates have been scrutinized in great detail so that we

can ensure the reliability of the study. To assure the quality and relevance of
the academic literature, the abstracts of the articles were subjected to intense
scrutiny. Subsequently, each research report was subjected to a thorough anal-
ysis before being deemed complete. A review was conducted on 80 papers,
of which there were no duplicates. Articles with pertinent information and
illustrations that met the purpose of this review were selected for inclusion;
all other articles were not considered for inclusion due to the nature of this
study, which is a narrative review. The researchers settled on covering the
years 2000-2022 for their research. On the other hand, the vast majority of
the publications published before 2000 were excluded from the search. In ad-
dition, after applying the inclusion criteria, purposive sampling was used to
eliminate duplicate records. Then, 3 additional articles were added to the
study because they were the most relevant to this study; however, they were
published before 2000. Ultimately, the researcher chose 33 documents (n=33)
based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The authors' conceptual defini-
tions of sampling techniques and the benefits and drawbacks associated with
each were supported by literature, which the researchers gathered from a total
of 33 papers. On the other hand, all of the mentioned examples come from
the researchers' personal experiences.

Research question one: What stages does a researcher need to follow to

select a suitable sampling technique?

46
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

Sampling technique’s stages

Before selecting the most suitable sample techniques, it is necessary
to have a solid understanding of the phases involved in the sampling process.
In most cases, to choose the appropriate sampling technique, the researchers
need to concentrate on the factors listed below (Table 1).
Table 1. Basic concepts of sampling stages with example
Sampling stages Concepts Example

The term "target population" re- A researcher wants to know the

fers to a group of people or entrepreneurial intentions of un-
Clear idea about things about which researchers dergraduate students of higher ed-
target population wish to draw generalizations in ucation institutions in Bangla-
their findings. Under certain desh. In this particular situation,
conditions, a sample represents all of the undergraduate students
a group of people who collec- will be considered “target popula-
tively make up what is some- tion”.
times called a "target popula-
tion."
Choosing the Ac- A sampling frame is a list of all In relation the above example, if
cessible sampling possible units to sample from a that faculty member decided to
frame population. Remember that a collect the data from only 15
population is broader in scope higher educational institutions,
while a sample frame is more then, the undergraduate students
specific. of those 15 higher educational in-
stitutions are accessible sampling
frame.
Choosing sam-
pling techniques This part will be covered by answering the second research ques-
tion.

Consideration of
the appropriate This part will be covered by answering the third research question.
sample size

Implementing the In this stage, the researchers After considering all of the above
sampling plan in- have to select a suitable sam- issues, if that researcher, can col-
cluding data col- pling technique based on your lect the from 400 undergraduate
lection problem statement, research business students from those 15
questions and objectives. higher educational institutions us-
ing “stratified sampling tech-
nique).

47
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

Research Question Two: What are the various non-probability techniques?

Sampling techniques
Sampling strategies are very important in a variety of different kinds
of experimental research, including the social sciences (Suresh et al., 2011).
The two most common methods of sampling are known respectively as prob-
ability sampling and non-probability sampling (Rahman et al., 2022; Elfil and
Negida, 2017; Shorten and Moorley, 2014). In this paper, the researcher only
focuses on non-probability sampling techniques.

Non-probability sampling
When there is no equal chance to select the respondents for the study,
it is suggested to use the non-probability sampling technique. Non-probability
samples can typically be obtained in a shorter time and for a lower financial
investment than probability sampling techniques. However, these inference
methods can be influenced by selection bias; it is impossible to use them to
estimate population sizes in a manner that is near to unbiased. In addition,
considering that these techniques depend on the researcher's discretion or a
random event, it is often not possible to use them to draw broad generaliza-
tions for the entire society. The common techniques of non-probability sam-
pling are describing below with appropriate example.

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 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

Table 2. Non-probability sampling techniques with its uses and example

Non-proba-
bility sam-
pling tech- When to use Example
niques

This technique is excellent for

young researchers like new
teachers who cannot move freely
from their institutions (Statistics
and Theory, 2020). This method A social science researcher needs to
Convenience works best when the people are get feedback from 400 undergraduate
sampling very diverse and can live any- students about their entrepreneurial
where (Alvi, 2016). Also, this intentions. In that case, the re-
strategy saves time and money, searcher can prepare a questionnaire
both essential factors (Taher- and distribute it to the undergraduate
doost, 2016). Convenience sam- students. Or, he or she may quickly
pling is typically favoured by re- create an online survey and send a
searchers in the beginning link to all social media. This is an ex-
phases of survey research since ample of convenience sampling.
it is quick and straightforward to
collect findings. Although there
is considerable resistance among
statisticians to employing this
method, it is essential whenever
there is a need to get insights in
a short amount of time or with-
out making a big financial com-
mitment.

Purposive or judgmental sam-

pling is a type of sampling that
researcher’s use when they want
to find people with certain traits In relation to the earlier example, if
that are important to the study. the researcher needs the data from
Purposive People who took part in the re- senior-level undergraduate students
sampling search could give a lot of infor- to fulfil the research objectives, he or
mation about the research ques- she might purposively select the stu-
tion, even though it is unlikely dents to form 4th-year final students
that the sample will be repre- as they might have experienced about
sentative of the whole popula- entrepreneurship and entrepreneur-
tion (Acharya et al., 2013; Lohr, ship education.
2009). Purposive sampling is
best or most effective in terms of
research in conditions where
there are just a confined number
49
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

of individuals in an all-inclusive
community who own character-
istics that a specialist anticipates
from the objective individuals.

Under this sampling technique,

the researchers select the neces-
sary sample size from each pop-
ulation's sub-group by following
a proportionate ratio (Pace, In relation to the earlier example, the
Quota sam- 2021; Iliyasu, 2021). When the faculty member needs 40% female
pling accuracy of the research out- and 60% male students. So, based on
come is less critical, the quota the proportionate quota sampling, the
sampling method is more appro- required sample size will be, Female:
priate. Quota sampling is effec- 40% of 400= 160, Male: 60% of
tive when the researcher has a 400=240. The total sample size will
clear concept of the research be (160 female students+240 male
purpose and in-depth knowledge students=400 students).
of the population. Besides, when
conducting research that re-
quires a comparative examina-
tion of two subgroups, quota
sampling identifies distinct char-
acteristics among the interre-
lated traits of those two catego-
ries.

Snowball sampling is all about Concerning the earlier example, if re-

networking. It has evolved over searcher needs the data from senior-
the years into a method that can level undergraduate students to fulfil
be used to research populations the research objectives, he or she
that are difficult to access or might send the questionnaire only to
even concealed (Heckathorn, the representatives of the batches,
Snowball 2011). Not only is it a tool to ex- and the representatives may forward
sampling plore the network, but it is also a the questionnaire to his or her known
practical approach to getting in students. During the distribution, the
touch with respondents without representatives will instruct other
their awareness. The success and representatives to distribute the ques-
efficiency of the snowball sam- tionnaire to their known students.
pling approach, on the other This procedure will continue until
hand, are almost totally contin- getting the 400 responses from the re-
gent upon the personal or profes- spondents.
sional contacts of the researcher
(Waters, 2015).

50
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

Research question three: What is the minimum sample size for survey re-
search?

Determination of sample size

For survey research, sufficient sample size is crucial. Without ensur-
ing a sufficient sample size, it is difficult to generalize the findings of re-
search. According to Sekaran and Bougie (2010), the sample size is the por-
tion or sub-set of a population required to ensure that there is sufficient infor-
mation to generalize the findings of the research. Several factors need to be
considered when choosing an appropriate sample size such as budget, time,
number is items, the number of variables, the complexity of the research
model and so on. In the following part, the general guidelines relating to the
calculation of sample size are given. In the first stage, the researcher has
shown the sample size calculation using G* power software. In the second
stage, sample size calculation for continuous and categorical variables has
shown. Finally, some popular techniques for the determination of sample size
have been shown as a Table 3.

Sample size calculation procedure using G*power

Apart from the above methods or techniques (mentioned in Table 2),
one of the most popular ways to calculate the sample size is G*power. The
overall procedures and commands of G*power are shown step by step.
1st step: The researchers have to download the free G*power pro-
gramme (17 March 2020 - Release 3.1.9.7) using the following link
http://www.psychologie.hhu.de/arbeitsgruppen/allgemeine-psychologieund-
arbeitspsychologie/gpower.html

51
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

2nd step: When the programme is ready to use, selecting “F tests” analysis
from the test family options is required.
3rd step: From the statistical test, select “Linear multiple regression: fixed
model, R2 deviation from zero.”
4th Step: In the power analysis option, “A-priori: Compute required sample
size – given α, power and effect size.”
5th Step: The researchers need to input “effect size at 0.15 (medium effect), α
at 0.05, and power at 0.80” in the input parameters.

The above five steps are the most common recommended settings for
business and social science researchers (Hair et al., 2017). Afterwards, the
researchers must depend on the predictors of their research model indicated
by arrows to the dependent variable. An example of a simple research model
is given below to identify the predictors.

Locus of Control

Need for
Achievement
Entrepreneurial
Intention

Risk Tolerance

Entrepreneurial
Alertness

Figure 2. Dummy research model to find out the predictors and arrow to de-
pendent variable

52
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

From the above dummy model, the number of predictors is 4, pointing

to the dependent variable. Then, the researchers need to input these 4 predic-
tors into the “number of predictors”.

Source: Screenshot taken by author

For simple research model (figure 2), the minimum sample size is 85.
The below model is complex, 4 as the direct predictors and another 4
(independent*moderating) as the indirect predictors, so the total predictors
are 8 that pointing the dependent variable. Then, the researchers need to input
these 8 predictors into the “number of predictors”

53
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

Age

Locus of Control

Need for Achieve-

ment

Entrepreneurial In-
tention

Risk Tolerance

Entrepreneurial Alert-
ness

Figure 3. A dummy complex model (moderation)

Source: Screenshot taken by author

54
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

In that case, it was a complex research model, thus, the minimum sample size
is 109.

Sample size for continuous and categorical variables

Before determining the sample size based on continuous and categor-
ical variables, there are several factors that need to be considered, such as a)
selecting the alpha value, b) the acceptable margin of error of mean being
estimated, and c) the estimate of variance of population. These are just a few
examples (Cochran, 1977).
First, according to Bartlett et al. (2001), an alpha level of 0.05 is ac-
ceptable in the majority of research; therefore, an alpha level of 0.05 (t value
of 1.96), which represents a 95% confidence level, has been established.
Second, the margin of error is the range of mistakes that can be made
in a study. Krejcie and Morgan (1970) say that for continuous data, a margin
of error of 3% is acceptable. But since the research tool for this study was a
5-point Likert scale and the acceptable margin of error is 3%, the true mean
of the 5-point scale will undoubtedly be within ± .15 (0.03*5). But the ac-
ceptable margin of error for categorical data is ± 5.
Calculating the estimated variance is the third and final factor to con-
sider. Since it was established earlier that the present investigation utilized a
scale of the Likert variety consisting of five levels, the calculation of variance
would be 4/5, with 1.25 representing the square number. Where 5 represents
the total number of points on the scale, and 4 represents the amount of stand-
ard deviation that may be calculated by subtracting one from the total number
of points on the scale.

55
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

On the contrary, with a view to getting maximum sample size for cat-
egorical data, Krejcie and Morgan (1970) suggested a variability of 50% in
the population, thus, the categorical data might be squaring the population
variability (0.50)2 = 0.25.

Formula for Continuous Variable, N0=t2*s2/d2

Formula for Categorical Variable, N0=t2*pq /d2
Here

t= selected alpha level

s= estimated standard deviation
d= Acceptable margin of error of mean being estimated
pq= estimated variance
p= Proportion of maximum possible population
q= 1 minus possible population proportion.

Sample Size for Continuous variable, Cochran’s (1977) using N0=t2*s2/d2=

267
Sample Size for Categorical variable, Cochran’s (1977) using N0=t2*pq /d2=
385
Now in the following Table, the researcher has highlighted some pop-
ular guidelines for the determination of minimum sample size for survey re-
search.

56
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

Table 3. Sample size guidelines for survey research

Ap- General rules Example for minimum sample size
proaches
If a researcher developed a model with
Sample Considering the sample to variable 6 independent variables, the sample
to varia- ration, the ratio should not be less size is 6*5=30!!!! This sample size is
ble(s) ra- than 5:1, but a 15:1 or 20:1 ratio is insufficient for inferential analysis
tion more preferable (Hair et al., 2018). (Bartlett et al., 2001). In that case, the
researcher must go for a 20:1 ratio;
then, the minimum sample size will be
6*20=120.

The first common rule for an item

to ration is that the ratio should be If a researcher focuses on 50 items in
at least 5:1. (Suhr, 2006). his or her questionnaire, the minimum
Sample sample size will be 50*5=250
to
item(s) Another rule is, the ratio should be
ration 20:1 (Liao et al.,2015; Yeoh et al., If a researcher focuses on 30 items in
2016 and Forsberg & Rantala, his or her questionnaire, the minimum
2020). sample size will be 30*20=600

Social science and behavioural re- A sample size of 384 is sufficient for a
searchers widely use the Krejcie population up to 1000000.
Sample and Morgan Table (KMT, Krejcie
size & Morgan, 1970) to determine If the population size is less than
from the sample sizes. This information can 1000000, one can visit the following
Table of be used without calculations and link to get the minimum sample size
Krejcie applies to any specified population.
and According to the KMT, a sample http://www.kenpro.org/sample-size-
Mor- size of 384 is enough for a popula- determination-using-krejcie-and-mor-
gan’s tion of 1000000 or more. gan-table/

Covariance Based-Structural Equa-

tion Modeling (CB-SEM) is a
widely used statistical technique 100 to 200 sample size is enough for a
Sample for social science researchers. The simple research model with normal
size for sample size for CB-SEM depends data distribution.
CB- on the researcher’s model. If the re-
SEM as search model is not too complex, Over 200 is suggested for a complex
per 100 respondents are a small sample model with a non-normal distribution
Kline’s size, 200 respondents are a medium of data.
(2005, sample size, and over 200 is a large
2016) sample size (Kline, 2005). How-
ever, Kline (2016) also stated that a
57
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

200 sample size is insufficient if the

research model is too complex with
a non-normal distribution.

Business and social science re-

searchers also use the Partial Least
Square-Structural Equation Model-
ing (PLS-SEM) techniques for their
studies. The "10-times rule" was in-
itially developed by Hair, Ringle, Suggested sample size
and Sarstedt (2011). The prior liter-
ature has extensively used it since it
is the most simple and straightfor-
ward method to determine the sam-
ple size than other methods
(Westland, 2010; Kock & Hadaya,
Sample 2018;). The determination of the
size sample size using the rule that the
guide- sample size should be greater than Source: RVSPK Ranatunga et al.,
lines for 10 times the maximum number of 2020
PLS- inner or outer model linkages point-
SEM ing at any latent variable in the en-
tire model. According to Kock &
Hadaya (2018), the "10-times rule"
method for finding the smallest
sample size frequently gives wrong
estimates. Hair et al. (2014) came
up with a different way to find the
minimum sample size than the "10
times rule." Kock and Hadaya
(2018) called it the "minimum R-
squared method" because it uses the
model's minimum R2. This
method, in particular, is based on
Cohen's (1988) power Table for
least squares regression and the
three criteria needed to figure out
the sample size. The first part of the
minimal R-squared technique is the
number of arrows that point to a la-
tent variable in a model. The sec-
ond part is the significance level
that was used, and the third is the
minimum R2 of the model. Table
01 is a shortened version of the Ta-
ble published by (Hair et al.,2014).

58
 Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business, and Economics, 2023, 11(1), 42–62

It uses the most common signifi-

cance level of 0.05 and assumes
that the power is set to 0.8.

Implications
This study provides an essential and easily digestible explanation of
selecting an acceptable sample size and non-probability sampling methods
utilized in research. Each type of non-probability sampling approach pos-
sesses a one-of-a-kind combination of characteristics, advantages, potential
disadvantages, and examples of applications. At the study's beginning, the
sampling method and the reasons behind it are discussed. The readers will
observe that non-probability techniques have been explicitly covered under
distinct titles when they read this study from beginning to end. Additionally,
examples that are quite similar to these are used in discussing the different
non-probability sampling techniques, with a few minor modifications. This
section's goal is to dispel any misconception about the non-probability sam-
pling techniques that appear to be comparable. In addition, this study has ex-
plored several guidelines for determining the right sample size for surveys.
G* power model, sample size of categorical and continuous variables, the
sample to items ratio, the sample to variables ratio, and the sample size of the
corresponding CB-SEM, PLS-SEM are included in these guidelines.

Conclusion
This paper focuses on two main goals: first, to get an idea of the min-
imum sample size for survey research, and second, to explain non-probability
sampling techniques and give an example of how they work. If the researchers
do not use the proper sampling method and do not take a significant enough

59
Rahman, M. M. 2023. Sample Size Determination for Survey Research and Non-Probability Sampling
Techniques

sample, they will never be able to reach their research goals. There are a lot
of different non-probability sampling strategies, so the researcher needs to
know how they differ to choose what is best for their studies. Also, a few rules
or guidelines must be followed when deciding the minimum sample size for
survey research. These guiding principles could make it easier for researchers
to generalize the results of their findings. Researchers will benefit from this
study because it will help them choose the accurate non-probability sampling
method(s) and minimum required sample size for their studies.

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Md. Mizanur Rahman is currently working as an Assistant Professor, BRAC Business School, BRAC
University, Bangladesh. The research interest areas of Rahman are Management, Organizational Be-
havior, HRM, Entrepreneurship, Artificial Intelligence, Corporate Governance, and Sustainability. Dr.
Rahman is more focusing on quantitative techniques following PLS-SEM, CB-SEM, and SPSS.

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